SWEDEN 



BY 



VICTOR NILSSON, Ph.D. 



AUTHOR OF " LODDFAFNISMAL, AN EDDIC STUDY 



ILL U STRA TED 






NEW YORK 

PETER FENELON COLLIER 

MDCGCXCIX 



LIBRARY of 30NG«£SS 
fwo Copies deceived 

JUN 24 1905 

Jowngnt tiury 
CLASS {/&. XAC. Nw 

£ c 3 O 

COPY B. 



•ess— =-se 



. NT 



Copyright, 1899, 

BY 

PETER FENELON COLLIER, 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 
INTRODUCTION 5 

CHAPTER I 

SWEDEN IN PREHISTORIC AND EARLY HISTORIC TIMES — ARCHAEOLOGI- 
CAL FINDS AND CLASSICAL TESTIMONY 11 

CHAPTER II 

DAWN OF SWEDISH HISTORY— HEIMSKRINGLA AND YNGLINGATAL . 33 

CHAPTER III 

THE VIKING AGE— ANSGAR, THE APOSTLE OF SWEDEN ... 44 

CHAPTER IV 

EARLY CHRISTIAN ERA— STENKIL'S LINE AND INTERCHANGING 

DYNASTIES • . 64 

CHAPTER V 

THE MEDIAEVAL STATE— THE FOLKUNG DYNASTY . . . .. 80 

CHAPTER VI 

UNIONISM VERSUS PATRIOTISM — MARGARET, ENGELBREKT AND 

CHARLES KNUTSSON .100 

CHAPTER VII 

UNIONISM VERSUS PATRIOTISM — UNCROWNED KINGS OF THE STURE 

FAMILIES 115 

CHAPTER VIII 

REVOLUTION AND REFORMATION— GUSTAVUS VASA . . . .130 

CHAPTER IX 

REFORMATION AND REACTION— THE SONS OF GUSTAVUS I. . . 161 

CHAPTER X 

PERIOD OF POLITICAL GRANDEUR— GUSTAVUS II. ADOLPHUS . .192 

(3) 



4 CONTENTS 

CHAPTER XI 

PERIOD OF POLITICAL GRANDEUR — QUEEN CHRISTINE „"■ , 220 

CHAPTER XII 

PERIOD OP POLITICAL GRANDEUR— CHARLES X. AND CHARLES XI. . 242 

CHAPTER XIII 

PERIOD OP POLITICAL GRANDEUR — CHARLES XII 268 

CHAPTER XIV 

PERIOD OP LIBERTY — THE ARISTOCRATIC REPUBLIC . . . , 310 

CHAPTER XV 

GUST AVIAN PERIOD— GUST A VUS III. AND GUSTAVUS IV. ADOLPHUS . 343 

CHAPTER XVI 

THE CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY— CHARLES XIII. AND THE EARLY 

BERNADOTTES . 365 

CHAPTER XVII 

PARLIAMENTARY REFORM — CHARLES XV 891 

CHAPTER XVIII 

PROGRESS AND PROSPERITY — OSCAR II , 414 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



Frontispiece— Charles XII. in the Battle of Pultowa . 
Gustavus Adolphus D. G. Rex Svec. Goth . 

The Battle of Pultowa 

Battle of Warsaw 



INTRODUCTION 



The kingdom of Sweden occupies the eastern and larger 
part of the Scandinavian peninsula, covering an area of one 
hundred and seventy thousand six hundred and sixty square 
miles, with a population of somewhat more than five mil- 
lions. Sweden is of nearly the same width, from east to 
west, throughout her whole length. If the country were 
divided into four equal parts, the southernmost part would 
correspond to the district of Gothaland, the next to the dis- 
trict of Svealand, consisting of most of what is north of the 
lakes Venar and Vetter and what is south of the Dal River, 
while the two remaining parts together would make up the 
district of Norrland. Gothaland, in ancient times called 
Sunnanskogs (South of the Woods), consists of the old 
provinces Scania, Bleking, Smaland and East Gothland 
by the Baltic, Halland and Bohuslaen by the North Sea, 
and West Gothland of the interior Svealand, or Nordan- 
skogs, consists of the provinces Scedermanland and Upland 
by the Baltic, south and north of Lake Meelar, respective^, 
Dal, Vermland and Dalecarlia on the Norwegian frontier, 
and Nerike and Westmanland of the interior. Norrland 
consists of the provinces of Gestrikland, Helsingland, Me- 
del pad, Angermanland and Westerbotten by the Gulf of 
Bothnia, a branch of the Baltic, and Herjedal, Jemtland 

nnd the Lapmark on the Norwegian frontier A great 

(5) 



3 INTRODUCTION 

number of islands form part of the kingdom, of which the 
two largest, Gothland and (Eland, are situated in the Bal- 
tic. One-twelfth of the area, or as much as the whole 
state of Denmark, consists of water. 

Sweden is politically united with Norway and ruled by 
the same king, these united kingdoms forming the largest 
realm in Europe next to Russia, Sweden herself ranking 
as the sixth in size c 

Sweden is a country which offers striking varieties in 
scenery and conditions. In the southernmost province of 
Scania, an ancient home of culture, the nightingale and the 
stork dwell in the fertile plains, and the walnut, mulberry 
and chestnut trees render ripening fruit. Central Sweden 
is a wooded plateau, rich in rocky hills and inland seas. 
Although barren lands occupy large areas, these parts are 
characterized by a loveliness and picturesqueness which 
are still more pronounced in the northern provinces along 
the coast. Only in the inner mountainous regions of Norr- 
land is the scenery of real grandeur where the white-capped 
giants appear in vast groups, or in isolated peaks of six 
thousand to seven thousand feet in altitude, where a hun- 
dred glaciers with glacier rivers, moraines and erosions 
cover a surface almost as large as the glaciers of Tyrol, 
and where, in the turbulent course of mighty rivers, are 
formed tremendous waterfalls, one of them, The Hare's 
Leap, being the largest in Europe. 

Geologically considered, Sweden is situated around the 
centre of the ancient Scandinavian land-ice, and in the 
greater part of the country only two of the geological 
series, the oldest and the youngest, are represented. Thus 
the uneven, undulating surface of the Archa3an rocks, on 
which almost the whole country is firmly set, is in general 



INTRODUCTION 7 

covered with quaternary deposits of gravel and clay., The 
mountains are rich in iron ore, the streams and lakes in 
fish, the woods in game, but the soil, itself of a good qual- 
ity, unfortunately rich in stones. This last- mentioned cir- 
cumstance, together with the rather severe climate, which 
yet is a good deal milder than might be expected, especially 
in the southern and western parts of the country, makes 
agriculture, which is the most important industry, profit- 
able only on the extensive plains of Scania, Upland and 
West and East Gothland. Still barley and rye are culti- 
vated within the Polar Circle, ripening in remarkably 
short time under the nocturnal light of the Midsum- 
mer sun. Dense forests cover Sweden in the very 
same latitude in which Greenland is clad by eternal 
ice. The short summers are of a surpassing loveli- 
ness. In Norrland there is a Swedish Icen, or gov- 
ernmental district, of the size of the State of Ohio, on 
which, between the 5th of June and the 11th of July, the 
sun never sets. If the earth was perfectly plain and even 
one would be able to see the sun above the horizon contin- 
ually during this period. But these northerly regions are 
very mountainous, and consequently you will have to climb 
a high peak in order to see the wonderful sight of a sun 
which stands still when it should set, and which marks 
the difference between night and day only by a rolling 
motion in the horizon. There is no country in the world 
where so many places for such observation are reached 
so easily as in Sweden. One may travel the whole distance 
from the southernmost point of the country to the very base 
of a mountain, Gellivara, Sweden's Klondike, from which 
the midnight sun can be seen for thirty-seven nights in 
succession. But although the sun itself is visible only from 



8 INTRODUCTION 

the mountain peaks above the Polar Circle, the nocturnal 
light steeps the whole realm in midsummer-night's dreams 
of magic colors and reflectionSo 

The Swedish people are of Teutonic stock and have 
lived in the land they still inhabit for at least four thou- 
sand years, during this entire period not having assimilated 
other nationalities, or at least to no extent worth mention- 
ing, so that the Swedish nation is of an origin far purer 
than any other at present existing^ 

The kingdom of Sweden is the most ancient of the states 
still extant in Europe, for all historical monuments prove 
that the Swedes have kept to about their present territory 9 
perfectly independent of foreign nations, probably for a long 
time divided into lesser communities, but for the past twelve 
hundred years united in one single realm. The languages 
spoken in the Scandinavian North belong to the Teutonic 
family of Indo-European languages, and seem to have been 
one and almost homogeneous up to the time of the Viking 
Age (about 700-1060), when various dialects commence to 
be distinguished. The old uniform language has been 
preserved in Northern loanwords in the Finnish and Lap 
languages and in about one hundred of the oldest Runic in- 
scriptions. The early Old Swedish, from the Viking Age to 
somewhat later than 1200, did not differ much from the 
Old Norse (the Old Norwegian and Old Icelandic), while 
the difference from the Old Danish was almost impercepti- 
ble. The sources for the study of this language period are 
about two thousand later Runic inscriptions and nearly one 
hundred Old Swedish loanwords, almost all proper names, 
in the Russian language. The classical period of Old Swed- 
ish falls between 1200 and about 1350. Its most important 
monuments are the provincial laws and a manuscript collec- 



INTRODUCTION 9 

tion of saintly legends, called Codex Bureanus. The lan- 
guage of this period offers a number of dialects, of which 
only one, the Gutnic, is strictly defined. In the next period 
of Old Swedish, from 1350 to the Reformation, a universal 
language for the whole country is distinguished. The so- 
called Oxenstiern manuscripts and Codex Bildstenianus are 
the chief sources of our knowledge of this language period, 
mostly of religious contents. Modern Swedish dates from 
the Reformation, its later period being counted from the 
publication of the state law in 1734. The Swedish language 
seems to be based chiefly upon the dialect of Soedermanland, 
with influences from other dialects. Among the Scandina- 
vian languages, Swedish ranks next to the Icelandic in point 
of purity, and is the foremost of them all in point of beauty. 
The Swedes are a hardworking, industrious and intelli- 
gent race, not fully conscious of their own rich endowment 
and slow to push their individual claims. In moments of 
danger and distress, this people give evidence of an active 
heroism, which offers a great contrast to their usual quiet 
and peaceful demeanor. The Swedish nation is endowed 
with an unusual inventive power, which has placed it in 
the first rank of scientific research, having produced a quota 
of initiative spirits, as originators, founders and innovators 
of sciences, which is considerably larger than that of any 
other modern country, in proportion to the population. The 
national temperament is, like the soil, composed of extremes. 
With the serene quiet and almost sullen tranquillity goes a 
patience of extraordinary endurance which, when it gives 
in, surprises by the passion which takes its place. To the 
melancholy trait in the Swedish character is contrasted a 
great desire for the pleasures of life and exuberant animal 
spirits. Under a quiet surface, the Swede conceals a rapid 



10 INTRODUCTION 

comprehension and an almost morbid sensitiveness, some- 
times causing people of other nationalities to judge him 
slow of intellect or perfidious, when he is only slow of ac- 
tion or indisposed to show his feelings. The most valuable 
inheritance from his ancestors is his moral courage, while 
the ancient Northern trait of self-restraint is often carried 
to an extreme. Akin to both is his dignity. He possesses 
great musical and improvisatorial gifts which complete his 
lyric-rhetorical temperament. 

There are some 6,000 Laplanders and some 20,000 Finns 
living in the furthest North, and foreigners to the number 
of about 20,000 dwell in Sweden, mostly Norwegians, Finns 
and Danes. More than 99 per cent of the population con- 
sists of native Swedes, and 99.9 per cent belong to the 
Lutheran state church or the Protestant denominations. 

The principal towns are Stockholm, the capital, with 
300,000 inhabitants, enchantingly beautiful in situation, on 
the mainland and islands at the outlet of Lake Mselar into 
the Baltic; Gothenburg, with 120,000 inhabitants, the chief 
commercial centre, at the mouth of the Gotha River, by 
the North Sea; Malmoe, with 60,000 inhabitants, in Scania, 
by the Sound. The university towns of Upsala, in Upland, 
and Lund, in Scania, have 25,000 and 17,000 inhabitants, 
respectively. 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 




CHAPTER I 

Sweden in Prehistoric and Early Historic Times — 
Archaeological Finds and Classical Testimony 

HE Swedes, although the oldest and most unmixed 
race in Europe, realized very late the necessity of 
writing chronicles or reviews of historic events. 
Thus the names of heroes and kings of the remotest past 
are helplessly forgotten, and lost also the history of its 
earliest religion and institutions. 

But Mother Earth has carefully preserved most of what 
has been deposited in her bosom, and has repaid diligent 
research with trustworthy and irrefutable accounts of the 
age and various degrees of civilization of the race which 
inhabited Sweden in prehistoric times. Thus it has been 
proved that Sweden, like most other countries, has had a 
Stone Age, a Bronze Age, and an Iron Age. But there is 
absolutely no evidence to prove the now antiquated theories 
of various immigrations into Sweden by different races on 
different stages of civilization. On the contrary, the graves 
-from the remotest times, through all successive periods, 
prove by the form of the skulls of those buried in them that 
Sweden has, through all ages, been inhabited by the same 
dolichocephalic, or long-headed, race which constitutes the 
overwhelming majority of her people to-day. 

(ii) 



12 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

Sweden, physically considered, is not of as high an- 
tiquity as some countries of Europe. Yet it has been 
inhabited during the last four thousand years, at least. 
In the quaternary period the Scandinavian peninsula was 
a centre of a glacial movement which spread its disastrous 
influences over Western Russia, Northern Germany and 
Holland. In that period no vegetable or animal life was 
possible in Sweden. From the fact that the earliest stone 
celts found in Sweden and Denmark are not polished, ar- 
chaeologists were led to suppose that the Stone Age of the 
North was contemporaneous with the Palaeolithic civili- 
zation in Western Europe. But this standpoint has been 
found untenable, because it has later become evident that 
the fauna surrounding the earliest inhabitants of the 
Northern countries was ours and not a quaternary one. 

The oldest types of finds of the Stone Age in the North 
have been discovered in the refuse-heaps on the Danish 
coast. These refuse-heaps, consisting of stone implements, 
shells, bones, etc., do not occur in Sweden, but the imple- 
ments characteristic of them are found scattered over some 
parts of the southernmost Swedish province of Scania. The 
shape of these earliest finds is exactly the same as of those 
of the later Stone Age, the only difference being that the 
former are not polished. But there are transitions between 
the classes, and the act of polishing must be regarded as an 
important phase of progress. 

The Stone Age of Sweden is quite remarkable. If the 
remains of the earlier period are scanty, the finds from the 
later one are all the more numerous. With the exception 
of Denmark and a part of North Germany, there is no Eu- 
ropean country which can boast of such rich and beautiful 
relics from the later Stone Age as the southern part of 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 13 

Sweden. The finds in the other countries mentioned are 
almost exactly like those of Sweden from the Stone and the 
Bronze Ages, both as far as implements and skulls are con- 
cerned, proving them to have been settled by the same race. 

The weapons and implements from the Stone Age con- 
sist of axes, daggers, spearheads, arrowheads, saws, and 
knives of flint; axes, gauges, handmills of stone; fishhooks 
and arrowheads of bone; earthenware, etc., etc. The graves 
of this period are dolmens, passage-graves, and stone cists, 
the last mentioned either uncovered or covered with a bar- 
row. The different forms of burial places seem to indicate 
four successive stages of the period. Through their exist- 
ence it becomes probable that the inhabitants of Sweden 
during the Stone Age had fixed dwelling places. 

A dolmen is a grave-chamber of which the walls are 
formed of large, thick stones set up edgewise, covered with 
one huge block of stone as a roof, all the stones being rough 
outside and smooth inside. The passage-graves are built 
in the same way, but are larger and distinguished by a long 
covered passage leading to it. These graves are surrounded 
by a low barrow, upon the top of which the huge roof -stones 
were originally visible. Dolmens and passage- graves occur 
in Sweden in considerable numbers along the coast of 
Scania, on the plains of West Gothland and in Bohuslsen, 
more sparsely in other parts of West Gothland and in Hal- 
land, with stray cases of graves of a similar construction 
in Nerike and Western Scedermanland. It is important to 
note the regions in which these graves have been found, for 
they must be identical with the parts of the earliest settle- 
ments. Such graves are also very common in Denmark, 
while only one has been found in Norway. 

The stone cists resemble very much the chamber of a 



14 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

passage-grave. They are larger and four-sided, and built 
of somewhat thinner stones. Stone cists standing partly 
visible above the barrow constitute a form peculiar to 
Sweden, occurring in great numbers in West Gothland, 
Bohuslsen, Dalsland and Southwestern Vermland, while 
the covered stone cists appear in the same provinces and 
in Nerike, East Gothland, Smaland, Bleking and the Island 
of Gothland. 

During the Stone Age the bodies were buried unburned, 
in a recumbent or sitting position. By the side of the dead 
body was usually placed a weapon, a tool, or some orna- 
ments, sometimes also earthenware vessels, now filled only 
with earth. These vessels may once have contained food. 
The elaborate graves seem to indicate a belief in a future 
life. The food, if any such was placed by the side of the 
dead, would not necessarily point to the fact that such a 
future life was imagined merely as a continuation of earth 
life. The heathen Scandinavians of a later age believed 
that the dead remained for some time in their burial place 
before reaching their ultimate destination. For their pos- 
sible wants during this intermediate state food was left 
with the dead body. 

The total number of relics of stone found in Sweden is 
64,000. Of these only 4,000 belong to Svealand and JSTorr- 
land, while of all the rest found in Gothaland 45,000 belong 
to Scania alone. 

In a much later age the Scandinavians were regarded 
as pure barbarians. For this reason it is important to ob- 
serve that graves from the Stone Age show that the Swedes 
in that remote period had several domesticated animals, 
the dog, horse, ox, swine, sheep, and, perhaps, also the 
goat. Hence they were certainly a pastoral people, not 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 15 

living exclusively by hunting and fishing. But whether 
they practiced agriculture cannot be decided in the present 
state of our knowledge. The fact that the very oldest 
graves are found in the most fertile districts of Southern 
Sweden seems to speak in favor of the supposition that 
agriculture was known and appreciated. 

Of metals, even of gold, the people of the late Stone 
Age were entirely ignorant, also of the art of writing. 
Hence no monuments of their language will ever be found. 
Still it is highly probable that the Teutonic ancestors of the 
Swedes began to settle in the land from the beginning of 
the Stone Age. 

It is true that some skulls, very much like those of the 
Laps, have also been found in the graves of the Stone Age; 
but it must be borne in mind that these burial places, im- 
pressive through their size and the amount of work and 
mechanical skill necessary for their erection, can be believed 
to have been originally intended only for kings or chief- 
tains, and their families. It was probably a custom, as 
in later heathen times, to bury with such distinguished 
people a number of slaves, dead or alive. The presence of 
skulls of a non- Scandinavian type can thus be explained, 
without the necessity of accepting the theory of an early 
mixture of two races. 

In the northern part of Sweden have been found relics 
of stone, usually of slate, which do not appear to have 
belonged to the people of the dolmens or passage-graves. 
They bear a close resemblance to those found in Finland 
and in other countries inhabited by Laps, Finns and peo- 
ples related to them. This seems to prove that these so- 
called Arctic stone implements are relics of the Laps and 
belong to the time when this people was still ignorant of 



16 HISTOEY OF SWEDEN 

the use of metal. Judging from the number of relics 
found on the coast, from Westerbotten to Gestrikland, and 
in Dalecarlia, the Laps dwelt also in somewhat more south- 
erly parts of Sweden than at the present day. So far south 
as in the middle provinces, no Arctic stone relics have been 
found, still less in any of the southern provinces. This 
seems to indicate that the Laps and the Swedes did not 
dwell in the same parts of the country during the Stone 
Age, and their intercourse, if any, must have been of a 
very accidental and casual nature. 

That the Stone Age lasted a very long time in the 
North is proved by the fact that it reached a far higher 
development there than anywhere else in Europe. The 
best authorities think that it must have ended rather 
before than after 1500 B.C., or 3,500 years before our 
time. 

The Bronze Age followed upon the Stone Age. Flint 
exists in Sweden and was easily found. There are also 
copper mines, but their working is of comparatively mod- 
ern date. The copper of the Bronze Age must have been 
brought from abroad, and tin, necessary for the production 
of bronze, is foreign to Scandinavia. The knowledge of 
the working of any metal proves an immense progress. 
Yet there are strong grounds for the opinion that the be- 
ginning of the Bronze Age in Sweden was not connected 
with any great immigration of a new race, but that the 
inhabitants learned the art of working bronze by inter- 
course with other nations. The resemblance of the graves 
during the last part of the Stone Age and the early part 
of the Bronze Age points most strongly to such a conclu- 
sion. From Asia the knowledge of bronze, and the higher 
civilization dependent on it, had gradually spread itself 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 17 

over the continent of Europe, in a northerly and north- 
westerly direction, until it reached the coasts of the Baltic. 

The Bronze Age of Sweden began about 1500 B.C., and 
lasted for a thousand years, or until the beginning of the 
fifth century before Christ. The period has been divided 
into an Earlier and a Later Bronze Age, a division which 
has been questioned as to its absolute correctness. The 
works from the former are decorated with fine spiral orna- 
ments and zigzag lines. The graves generally contain re- 
mains of unburned bodies. The antiquities of the Earlier 
Bronze Age, almost without an exception, appear to be of 
native workmanship. They are distinguished by artistic 
forms and point to a highly developed taste in the working 
of bronze. They generally surpass in this respect the 
relics of the Bronze Age found in almost all other Euro- 
pean countries. The works belonging to the Later Bronze 
Age are characterized by a very different taste and style 
of ornamentation, though even they are often the result 
of great skill. The spiral ornaments are no longer pre- 
dominant, but the ends of rings, knife- handles, and the 
like, are often rolled up in spiral volutes. 

During this period the dead were always burned. But- 
tons, sword-hilts, and other works of bronze were some- 
times decorated with pieces of amber and resin inlaid. 
Objects are also often found overlaid with thin plates of 
gold. 

Remarkable are the rock-carvings from this period. 
The Swedes of the Bronze Age understood, by a kind of 
picture-writing, how to preserve the memory of important 
events, although an alphabet of any kind was unknown. 
The rock-carvings have been found abundantly in Bohus- 
leen (formerly a part of West Gothland) and East Goth- 



18 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

land, but also occur in Scania and other parts of Sweden. 
At the time of the arrival of Cortez in Mexico the Aztecs 
were exactly on the same standpoint. In spite of their 
high civilization, they were in the Bronze Age and pos- 
sessed a picture-writing, but were not acquainted with 
an alphabet. In Sweden, as in Mexico, there certainly 
once existed an oral tradition necessary for its interpreta- 
tion, which, now lost, leaves little hope for their present 
or future explanation. Yet they throw considerable light 
on Swedish civilization during this remote period. Thus 
they show that horses were already used for riding and 
driving. Cattle are represented. In pairs these are har- 
nessed to a plow, which is being driven by a man. 
Boats are depicted, generally very large ones, without 
masts, but with thirty pairs of oars or more. They are 
usually unlike at the two ends, sometimes adorned with 
an animal's head in the high and narrow stem, sometimes 
with a similar decoration also in the stern. 

The rock-carvings tell us nothing of the dwellings or 
the dress of the Swedes in the Bronze Age. All the instru- 
ments and tools necessary for the construction of wooden 
houses existed and appear to have been in use. The ma- 
terial was ever abundantly supplied by the Swedish forests, 
but it was not strong enough to withstand the influence 
of time. All the more surprising it is that articles of dress 
from such a remote period as the Earlier Bronze Age, 1000 
B.C., should have been preserved to our time. Still such 
is the case, thanks to a combination of exceptionally favor- 
able circumstances. These garments are of wool of a very 
simple substance; some have been worn by men, others 
by women. The man's dress consisted of an unbrimmed 
cap of thick woven wool, a wide circular mantle, a kind 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 19 

of tunic, kept together with a woollen belt, and some nar- 
row strips of wool which probably covered the legs. In a 
man's grave was found a shawl of wool with fringes. The 
woman's dress consisted then, as it does now, chiefly of 
two garments, a jacket with sleeves and a long robe, the 
latter held together with a belt of wool, ending in orna- 
mental tassels. Large mantles, of mixed wool and cow 
hair, were used as wraps. The women wore splendid 
bronze ornaments, such as finger-rings, bracelets, torques 
and brooches. From the finds it becomes apparent that 
many women in those days carried weapons, a dagger 
often being found at the side of the body. 

Besides swords and axes of beautiful workmanship, fish- 
hooks, sickles and the different parts of harness have been 
found; also vessels of gold or bronze, evidently used for 
temple service. The Swedes of the Bronze Age were not 
acquainted with the art of forging the heated metal, but 
they possessed much technical skill in the art of casting. 
When the implement was taken out of the mold it was 
dipped in cold water, and very often the surface was orna- 
mented by means of punches made of bronze. Their good 
taste was as highly developed as their skill. That the work 
was done in the North is proven by numerous finds of the 
very molds in which weapons and agricultural implements 
were cast. During the Stone Age only Gothaland and parts 
of Svealand were inhabited. The finds of the Bronze Age 
prove that the limits of the population were about the same 
during this period. The southern provinces continued to 
be the more thickly settled. Twenty times as many finds 
have been made in the soil of Scania as in the rest of the 
country. Nbrrland was hardly settled to any extent until 
the Iron Age, and has offered comparatively few finds from 



^0 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

the Bronze Age, the total of which for the whole of Sweden 
amounts to about 4,000. 

The Iron Age followed upon the Bronze Age. It lasts 
to this very day, we ourselves still living in the Iron Age; 
but the term is generally applied to that part of the period 
which commences with the close of the Bronze Age, and 
ends with the fall of heathendom. During the Iron Age, 
the Swedes first became acquainted with iron, silver, brass, 
lead, glass, stamped coins from foreign lands, and learned 
how to solder and gild metal. Archaeologists have divided 
the period into two main parts, the Earlier and the Later 
Iron Age, both with subdivisions. The Earlier Iron Age 
includes the time from the fifth century B,c. to about 
the beginning of the fifth century A.x>. The first half 
of the Earlier Iron Age is characterized by swords with 
both blades and sheaths made of iron, thin crescent-shaped 
knives, brooches of iron, collars, and decorative plates over- 
laid with bronze. The graves resemble those from the end 
of the Bronze Age, containing burned bones in urns, or laid 
together in a heap. This circumstance makes it more than 
probable that the first introduction of iron in the North was 
not connected with any immigration of a new people. The 
finds of the earliest Iron Age are not very rich, but they 
prove that the people who have left them behind had been 
subjected to a very strong influence from the Gallic tribes 
living close to the south of the Teutonic area of population. 
Then came the second half of the Earlier Iron Age, charac- 
terized by a strong Roman influence. It commences with 
the extension of the Roman empire toward the North, about 
the beginning of the Christian era, and winds up with the 
beginning of the fifth century, when Teutonic migrations 
and invasions put an end to the power of Rome. In the 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 21 

hostile or friendly relations between Romans and Teutons 
the Swedes were not involved. But by the peaceful ways 
of commerce the influence of Rome penetrated to the peo- 
ple of the North. Great numbers of Roman coins have 
been found in Sweden, and also vessels of bronze and glass, 
weapons, etc., as well as works of art, all turned out of 
workshops in Rome or its provinces. Out of about 4,760 
Roman coins of this time found in Sweden, no less than 
4,000 were found in the remarkable Island of Gothland, in 
the southern half of the Baltic, 90 in the neighboring island 
of (Eland, 650 in Scania, but only 23 on the mainland of 
Sweden, excluding Scania. About 250 were found in 
Bornholm, 600 in Denmark, but only 3 in Norway. It 
becomes evident from these finds that there existed a reg- 
ular traffic over the Baltic, through Germany, between 
the Island of Gothland and the Roman provinces, from 
the epoch of the Marcomannic war down to the time of 
Septimius Severus. Similar finds have been made on the 
southern shore of the Baltic, showing that the traffic 
came from the southeast, along the valleys of the Vistula 
and the Oder. 

One of the most important discoveries of this period was 
the art of writing, which the inhabitants of the North seem 
to have acquired soon after the beginning of the Christian 
era. The earliest alphabetic symbols in Sweden, and the 
only ones used there during the whole of heathen times, were 
runes. These were probably invented a little before the 
Christian era by a South Teutonic tribe, in imitation of the 
Roman writing which the Teutons received from one of the 
Celtic tribes living just to the north of the Alps. The Ro- 
man characters were adapted for the use of inscriptions in 
stone and wood, the curves being changed into straight 



22 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

lines. The Runic characters, in use among all Teutonic 
tribes, were twenty-four in number; these older runes 
were, by the Scandinavians, later simplified and reduced 
to sixteen. There is a number of inscriptions in older runes 
in Sweden, dating from about 300 to 500 a.d. They are 
found chiefly on stones and gold bracteates, also in Eng- 
land, France, Germany, Wallachia and the west of Russia. 
All belong to about the same date, and are of Teutonic 
origin. The early Runic inscriptions do not contain any 
accounts of historically known persons or events. Yet they 
are of the greatest historical importance, for they show that 
during the Earlier Iron Age, in the fourth and fifth centu- 
ries, the language of Sweden, and consequently also the 
people, were Teutonic. These inscriptions in Sweden and 
neighboring countries give samples of the earliest known 
form of the Northern language, which is considerably 
different from its descendants, the Old Swedish, Danish, 
Norwegian and Icelandic, but very much resembling the 
language spoken by the Goths on the Danube during 
the same period. 

The Later Iron Age commences with the fifth century 
and stretches to the beginning of the eighth century a.d. 
When Italy had been overrun by the " barbarians," the 
centre of the old civilization shifted to Byzantium, and 
there are many traces of an active intercourse with the 
capital of the Byzantine rule in the finds made in Swedish 
soil. Most of these finds consist of gold coins of the fifth 
century, the majority of them having been found in the 
islands of GEland and Gothland. The stream of gold com- 
ing from Byzantium must have been quite considerable, 
having its source in the tribute which many of the Byzan- 
tine emperors had to pay to the Goths on the Danube. 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 23 

They are the very same emperors whose names appear on 
the coins found in Sweden. The great number of costly 
and beautiful ornaments of gold found in Sweden, and dat- 
ing from this period, must have been made out of Roman 
and Byzantine coins, melted down. One of the largest 
hoards of gold ever found in Europe was discovered in 
the Swedish province of Scedermanland. Its weight was 
twenty-seven pounds, and it contained several ornaments 
of consummate workmanship. 

Remarkable are the graves from this period, discovered 
in the province of Upland. They are barrows containing 
the more or less mouldering remains of a large boat in 
which the dead man has been buried unburned with his 
weapons, horses, and other domestic animals. The swords 
found in these graves are of iron with hilts of beautiful 
designs in gilded or enamelled bronze. The shields and 
helmets are often of elaborate workmanship. Unlike the 
swords, which mostly, or perhaps always, are of foreign, 
generally of Celtic make, these ornaments and weapons are 
of domestic origin. 

It appears, from the many beautiful and artistic finds in 
Swedish soil, as if the inhabitants have benefited by their 
situation, aside and outside of the rest of the world. Con- 
tinual migrations subjected the tribes of the continent to 
repeated changes and to a never-ceasing series of new and 
heterogeneous impressions. The tribes of the North re- 
mained on the same spot, and their whole development 
was slower but more consistent. The foreign influences 
penetrated slowly and gradually, without crushing the old 
civilization. The industrial arts blossomed not so often in 
the North as in the South, but steadier, giving a clearer 
expression of the national traditions and peculiaritieSo 



24 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

These circumstances make the study of Northern antiqui- 
ties of absorbing interest. 

Before the end of this period, not only Gothaland and 
Svealand, but also the coast of Norrland, as far north as 
the province of Medelpad, were inhabited. As a whole, the 
first part of the Later Iron Age forms a transition between 
the Earlier Iron Age and the Viking Age, the archaeological 
finds of which we must leave aside to take up the threads 
of the earliest history. The Viking Age is exceedingly rich 
in stones with inscriptions in the later runes, some of these 
inscriptions being quite lengthy, and containing strophes 
of alliterative verse in Old Swedish. 

Before entering into an account of early Swedish history, 
let us gather what information the classical writers of his- 
tory have to give in regard to the countries of the North, or 
rather whatever of such information that has been preserved 
to our day. 

The Scandinavian countries are for the first time men- 
tioned by the historians of antiquity in an account of a 
journey which Pyteas from Massilia (the present Marseille) 
made through Northern Europe, about 300 B.C. He visited 
Britain, and there heard of a great country, Thule, situ- 
ated six days' journey to the north, and verging on the 
Arctic Sea. The inhabitants in Thule were an agricultu- 
ral people who gathered their harvest into big houses for 
threshing, on account of the very few sunny days and the 
plentiful rain in their regions. From corn and honey they 
prepared a beverage (probably the mead). By Thule is 
no doubt meant the Scandinavian peninsula, or rather the 
western coast of it. Pyteas also tells of the land of amber, 
or the southern shores of the Baltic, where the guttones are 
dwelling. As the northern and southern shores of the Bal- 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 25 

tic from the very earliest period seem to have been inhabited 
by the same race which has shared the same development 
and civilization, there is every reason to recognize the name 
guttones as identical with the one given to the inhabitants 
of the Swedish Gothaland and Island of Gothland. 

Several centuries pass without any notice of Scandinavia 
in the classical literature. In the still preserved manuscripts 
of the geographical work by Pomponius Mela, written in the 
middle of the first century a.d., is found a reference to 
Codania, a large and fertile island inhabited by Teutons. 
Codania is likely some scribe's misspelling of Scandi- 
navia. 

Pliny the Elder, who himself visited the shores of the 
Baltic in the first century after Christ, is the first to men- 
tion plainly the name of Scandinavia. He says that he 
has received advices of immense islands " recently discov- 
ered from Germany." The most famous of the many 
islands situated in the Codanian Bay was Scandinavia, of 
as yet unexplored size; the known parts were inhabited by 
a people called hilleviones, who gave it the name of another 
world. When he speaks of the British isles, Pliny again 
gives notice of islands, situated opposite Britain in the 
Teutonic Sea, without suspecting their identity with Scan- 
dinavia. He mentions Scandia, Nerigon, the largest of 
them all, and Thule. Scandia and Scandinavia are only 
different forms of the same name, denoting the southern- 
most part of the peninsula, and is yet preserved in the name 
of the province of Scania. Nerigon stands for Norway, 
the northern part of which is mentioned as an island by 
the name Thule. It is not surprising to find the classical 
writers ignorant of the fact that Scandinavia was not a 

group of large islands, but one great peninsula, as the 

xx 2 



26 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

northern parts were as yet uninhabited and their physical 
connection with Finland and Russia unknown. 

Tacitus is the first who mentions the Swedish name. 
In his work "Germania," of such great importance for the 
knowledge of the ancient Teutons, their conditions and 
institutions, and written about 100 years after Christ, the 
Baltic is described as an open sea called the Siievian Sea, 
shut out from the west by the Danish mainland of Jutland, 
by the Romans called the Cimbric Peninsula. The eastern 
shore is the country of amber. The Swedes are by Tacitus 
called Suiones, and he speaks of them thus: 

"Next occur the communities of the Suiones, seated in 
the very sea, who, besides their strength in men and arms, 
also possess a naval force. The form of their vessels differs 
from ours in having a prow at each end, so that they are 
always ready to advance. They make no use of sails, nor 
have they regular benches of oars at the sides: they row, 
as is practiced in some rivers, without order, sometimes 
on one side, sometimes on the other, as occasion requires. 
These people honor wealth; for which reason they are sub- 
ject to monarchial government, without any limitations 
or precarious conditions of allegiance. Nor are arms al- 
lowed to be kept promiscuously, as among the other Teu- 
tonic nations : but are committed to the charge of a keeper, 
and he, too, a slave. The pretext is that the sea defends 
them from any sudden incursions, and men unemployed, 
with arms in their hands, readily become licentious. In 
fact, it is for the king's interest not to intrust a noble, a 
freeman, or even an emancipated slave, with the custody 
of arms." 

These remarks by Tacitus, in all their brevity, are of 
great importance. Boats, exactly corresponding to the 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 27 

description as given, have been found in Swedish graves 
of this period, and that they were used for river traffic, to 
bring the gold and products of Rome and Byzantium up 
the Vistula and Oder, is evident. The great opulence 
in dress and temple service of which the archaeological 
finds bear witness, and of which later writers also speak 
as characteristic of the Swedes, is a proof of the wealth 
that at all times has attended naval dominion. Thus far 
all the statements being fully corroborated, one cannot but 
place great importance upon those that follow. The Ro- 
man historian tells us that, on account of the honor which 
the Swedes held for wealth, they were subject to a mo- 
narchial government, without any limitations; that is, the 
crown was hereditary, not elective. This coincides in every 
way with Swedish conditions of political affairs, such as 
we know them from later times. The important conclu- 
sions to be gathered from the statements of Tacitus, are 
that the Swedes already at the dawn of the Christian era 
held the political supremacy in the Scandinavian peninsula, 
or at least in its eastern and southern parts, and that the 
various lesser communities stood in allegiance to the he- 
reditary king of the Sviar (Svear), or Swedes in a limited 
sense, the inhabitants of Svealand. 

The psychological conclusions made by Tacitus, on the 
basis of his own statements, hold good of the Swedes of 
to-day as well as of those of 2,000 years ago. They still 
honor wealth and a monarchial government and consider 
the sea their best defence against foreign foes. 

Ptolemy, the Alexandrine geographer of the second 
century after Christ, speaks of the Scandinavian islands, 
situated east of the Cimbrian peninsula. The fourth and 
most easterly of these is the one originally called Scandeia. 



28 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

He enumerates six tribes which inhabit it, the names being 
unrecognizable, except the one of Qutai, Gauts or Goths, 
by him for the first time mentioned as dwelling in Scan- 
dinavia. 

To this information, gathered from classical authors, 
nothing is added for the next four hundred years in regard 
to the countries of the North. Only in the sixth century, 
when Rome has succumbed before the Gothic invasions, 
and the Teutonic tribes have divided between themselves 
the provinces of the West Roman empire, new information 
about Sweden is given by a Byzantine author, Prokopios, 
a contemporary of emperor Justinian. He mentions Scan- 
dinavia by the name Thule, and says he bases his state- 
ments upon information obtained from people "who come 
from there." 

Prokopios says that in the immense island of Thule, 
in the northern part of which the midnight sun can be 
seen, thirteen large tribes occupy its inhabitable parts, 
each tribe having its own king. One of the largest tribes 
is the Gauts (the Gcetar, or the inhabitants of Swedish 
Crothaland). These tribes very much resemble the people 
of southern Europe, with the exception of the Skee Finns, 
who dress in skins and live from the chase. 

Prokopios tells a remarkable story about an immigra- 
tion to Sweden of Herulians, a Teutonic tribe closely con- 
nected to the Goths on the Danube. In the beginning 
of the sixth century, it happened that the Herulians, after 
an unsuccessful war with the Longobardians, were divided 
into two branches, of which the one received land from the 
emperor Anastasius south of the Danube, while the other 
made a resolve to seek a home in the Scandinavian pen- 
insula. When they had passed the Slavs, they came to 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 29 

uninhabited regions, whence they continued to the country 
of the Varinians, and later to that of the Danes. The 
Danes granted them a free passage and the use of ships, 
in which they crossed to the island of Thule. Here the 
Herulians went to the Gauts and were well received by 
them. Some decades later the Herulians in South Europe 
were in want of a king. They resolved to send messengers 
to their kinsmen who had settled in Sweden, hoping that 
some descendant of their old royal family might be found 
there who was willing to assume the dignity of king among 
them. The messengers returned with two brothers who 
belonged to the ancient family of rulers, and these were 
escorted by two hundred young Herulians from Sweden. 
That this immigration really took place there is no doubt. 
The district of Sweden where these kinsmen of the Goths 
settled was early distinguished from the surrounding ones, 
inhabited by the Gauts of Sweden, through the peculiari- 
ties of its laws and customs, of which some survived into 
the commencement of the nineteenth century. This district 
forms the southern part of the province of Smaland, called 
Vserend, its inhabitants Virdar, and the adjoining province 
of Bleking. 

The Gothic historian Jordanes, or Jornandes, called 
Master Ardan, who was a contemporary of Prokopios, has 
taken upon himself to explain the reason of the strange 
resolve of the Herulians to seek a home in Sweden. He 
speaks of the traditions of the East Goths, which tell of their 
descent from the people of the North. Similar traditions 
also have existed among the West Goths, Longobardians, 
Gepidse, Burgundians, Herulians, Pranks, Saxons, Swa- 
bians and Alemannians. Thus Jordanes: "In the North 
there is a great ocean, and in this ocean there is a large 



30 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

island called Scandza, out of whose loins our race burst 
forth like a swarm of bees and spread over Europe." The 
island of Scanclza, he says, has been officina gentium, 
vagina nationum — the source of races, the mother of na- 
tions. And thence also the Goths have emigrated. 

Material is lacking to prove the historical truth of the 
Teutonic traditions which point to Scandinavia as the cradle 
of the Teutonic tribes. But Jordanes, the first historian of 
Teutonic birth who speaks of Scandinavia, stands at the 
cradle of Swedish history, and, as a modern historian has 
expressed it, his shadow throws an umbrage across the 
whole field of Swedish historical research. The mistake, 
based upon Jordanes' history, of identifying the Swedish 
Gauts with the Goths has caused a great deal of mischief 
and ridiculous chauvinism, Gothic and Swedish history and 
royal lines being mixed up or put in connection with each 
other. 

In leaving aside the Teutonic traditions of the island 
of Scandza, or Scania, as the cradle of the race, let us 
quote a remark by Tacitus which seems to point to the 
conclusion that such traditions were current already in 
the first century of the Christian era: "I should think 
that the Teutons themselves are aborigines, and not at 
all mixed through immigrations or connections with non- 
Teutonic tribes. For those desiring to change homes did 
not in early times come by land, but in ships across the 
boundless and, so to speak, hostile ocean— a sea seldom 
visited by ships from the Roman world." 

The Old English poem of Beowulf must also be men- 
tioned among the sources which throw light on early Swed- 
ish history. Whether the Geatas of Beowulf are identical 
with the Jutes of Denmark, or with the Gauts of Sweden, 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 31 

is a much disputed question. Although, phonetically, the 
Old English name Geatas corresponds to the Old Swedish 
Gaidar, it seems most plausible to suppose that by this 
term is meant the Jutes, and not the inhabitants of Swed- 
ish West or East Gothland. This accepted, the poem does 
not contain much about the Swedes. But the information, 
therein given, of the Swedish kings is of great value, be- 
cause it renders the service of a firm chronological support 
to the facts gathered from another source. This source, 
of vastly greater importance, is the Ynglinga Saga, or ra- 
ther the poem around which it is spun, in Heimskringla, 
of which more in the next chapter. 

The first information of the religion practiced by the 
inhabitants of Scandinavia is given by Prokopios, who says 
that they worshipped many gods and spirits of the sky, 
air, earth, sea, and also some who were supposed to dwell 
in springs and rivers. Offerings were constantly made, 
the chief ones being of human beings, for which the first 
prisoner made in a war was destined. This sacrifice was 
made to "Mars," who was the highest god. The state- 
ments of Prokopios without doubt are correct. The Scan- 
dinavian war-god who corresponds to the Mars of classical 
mythology was Tyr. Odin, originally the ruler of the 
wind, became the highest god during the Viking Age. 
He is an aristocratic god, the god of the select few, whose 
cult succeeded that of Tyr as the cult of the latter had 
succeeded that of Thor, the thunderer, as the highest god. 
The idea of a supreme God was probably unknown until 
the contact with Christianity, or at least not common. 
Thor, the peasant god, is probably the oldest of the gods 
of Teutonic mythology, the representative of stern power 
and law-bound order. Thor was the most popular god 



32 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

of the Swedes, to judge from the great number of ancient 
Swedish proper names of which his forms a part. Besides 
Thor, Odin and Frey were the most honored. All the 
other gods and goddesses mentioned in Old Norse litera- 
ture were probably known, but few of them much wor- 
shipped in Sweden. 




CHAPTER II 

Dawn of Swedish History — Heimskringla and 

Ynglingatal 

NORRE STURLESON, the great historian and poet 
of Iceland, of the earlier half of the thirteenth cent- 
ury, is considered to be the author of the history of 
the kings of Norway which, after the first words of the 
first chapter, has been called Heimskringla. As an intro- 
duction to the work he has put the saga of the Yngling 
kings of Sweden, of whom many of the Norwegian kings 
were supposed to be descendants. The Ynglinga Saga is 
a paraphrase to the much older song of Ynglingatal, a 
poem composed by the Norwegian poet Thiodulf of Hvin 
(who lived in the latter part of the ninth century) in praise 
of the supposed Swedish ancestors of the Norwegian king 
Ragnvald. The Ynglings were probably not identical with 
the kings of Upsala, who were of the race of the Skilfings, 
but of South Swedish or Danish origin. It is either out 
of ignorance, or out of sagacity, that the poet selected the 
Upsala rulers as originators of the Norwegian line of kings, 
but he has been unfortunate in the choice of a name for 
the dynasty. The poem itself is a trustworthy historical 
document, at least as far as the times are concerned which 
come comparatively close to the time of its own composi- 
tion, the first part containing many traits of a mythical 

(33) 



34 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

character. The saga spun around it is far from trust- 
worthy. Of the poem evidently the first, or first few, 
strophes are missing, but the "historian" supplies the vac- 
uum with stories of the gods Odin, Niord and Frey, whom 
he, according to the ideas of his time, changes from god's 
into historic kings, the first who ruled Svithiod (Sweden). 
Among learned men in Snorre's day there was a craze for 
tracing the pedigree of all nations of any renown back to 
some of the heroes of ancient Troy. Snorre serves us a 
saga of Odin's migration from Troy which, besides being 
confuse, would appear only ridiculous, if it had not wielded 
about as highly disastrous an influence upon correct con- 
ceptions of Swedish history as the work by Jordanes. This 
migration saga is found in a still more elaborate form in 
an introduction to Snorre's Edda, and is responsible for 
the erroneous opinion held by earlier Swedish historians, 
that the Swedes had migrated from Asia under the lead- 
ership of a chief who called himself Odin, and that the 
Swedes and the Gauts were, if not of different origin, at 
least of a habitation of differing age, in their present loca- 
tions. 

Based upon the information found in Ynglinga Saga 
we will give a review of the history of the early kings of 
Sweden, although the first dozen, and more, of these kings 
are of a doubtful " historic' ' character. At the dawn of 
history, Sweden was, like most other countries of North- 
ern Europe, divided into petty communities, each ruled 
by a king. These communities seem to have been nearly 
identical with the "lands" or later provinces into which 
Sweden is yet divided, although the administrative divis- 
ions are different. In spite of the fact that it is about 1,200 
years since these communities were united into one single 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 35 

realm, the inhabitants preserve to this day their respective 
peculiarities of customs and language. 

The most important among the chieftains of Sweden 
was, since time immemorial, the king of Upsala, who con- 
ducted the sacrifices and temple service at Upsala, the 
oldest and most celebrated place of heathen worship in 
the Scandinavian North. Originally, he had under his 
rule only one-third of the present province of Upland, the 
chief settlement of the Sviar, or Swedes in a limited sense. 
The Upsala kings belonged to the ancient royal race of 
Skilfings (or "Ynglings," according to Snorre), who traced 
their origin from the gods. The founder of the dynasty 
as accepted by Thiodulf and others was Yngve, who is 
said to have built the great temple at Upsala, moving 
thither the capital from the older Sigtuna and contribut- 
ing to the temple all his lands and riches. Yngve's son 
was Fiolner. King Fiolner was drowned by accident in 
a huge vessel full of mead, during a visit paid to King 
Frode in Denmark. 

His son Sveigder disappeared during a journey which 
he made in order to find Odin, the old. Both the names 
Fiolner and Sveigder appear to be mythical. Sveigder's 
son Vanlande was a great warrior. He is said once to 
have taken up his winter abode in Finland, which, together 
with several archaeological finds, point to an early inter- 
course between Sweden and Finland. Visbur succeeded 
his father Vanlande, marrying the daughter of Aude (the 
Rich), whom he afterward left and took another wife, 
bringing on himself a curse by so doing. Visbur's sons 
fell unexpectedly over him, burning him in his house. 
Domalde, his son, succeeded him. During a great famine 
in Svithiod he was offered to the gods in order to obtain 



86 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

good seasons. Domalde's son and grandson, Domar and 
Dygve, both reigned and died in peace. Dag, the son of 
Dygve, was so wise a man that he understood the language 
of birds. Agne, the son of Dag, was the ruler after him. 
One summer he invaded Finland with his army. Whei\ 
the Finns gathered there was a great battle, in which 
Agne gained victory, subduing all Finland. The daughter 
of a conquered chief, Skialf, was carried back to Sweden 
as his bride. But after a drinking feast, Agne was hanged 
in a tree by Skialf and her men. The place where this 
happened was called Agnefit, and is said to be identical 
with the site of Stockholm, the later capital of the country. 
Alrek and Eric became kings after the death of their 
father Agne. They got into a dispute one day while out 
walking. Having no weapons, they assailed and killed 
each other with their horses' bridles. Their successors, 
Yngve and Alf, the sons of Alrek, shared a similar fate, 
killing each other in the royal hall by the high-seat. After 
them Hugleik, the son of Alf, became king of the Swedes. 
On the Fyrisvols, the plains by the river Fyris in Upland, 
Hugleik was killed in battle against a famous sea-king 
Hake, who subdued the country and became king of 
Svithiod. The saga mentions that this Hake was a 
brother of Hagbard, whose love for the king's daughter, 
Signe, cost him his life. This love story is one of the 
most famous in the North and much spoken of in saga 
and song. The spot where Hagbard was hanged in a tree 
is still pointed out. When Hake had ruled as king for 
three years, Jorund and Eric, the sons of Yngve, returned 
with warships and warriors. They had grown up and 
become famous by conquering the king Gudlaug, of the 
Haleygians in Norway, whom they had met in Denmark. 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 37 

Now they met King Hake and his army at the Fyrisvols. 
In the battle, Eric was killed and Jorund fled to his ship. 
But King Hake was himself so grievously wounded that 
he ordered a warship to be loaded with his dead men and 
their weapons, and himself to be placed upon it. The sails 
were hoisted and the ship set on fire, and out it flew, with 
the dying king on board, between the skerries to the sea. 
Jorund now became king in Upsala. When he was one 
summer marauding in Jutland, he met a son of King Gud- 
laug, in the battle with whom he was overpowered, cap- 
tured and hanged. 

King Aune or Ane was the son of Jorund. He was a 
wise man who made great sacrifices to the gods. Being 
no warrior he lived quietly at home. Twice he fled from 
Upsala, on account of Danish invasions, remaining in West 
Gothland twenty-five years each time, and holding sway 
at Upsala for an equally long time between his periods of 
exile. He lived to become 110 years of age. The secret 
of his longevity was that he sacrificed one of his sons to 
Odin every tenth year, and was granted in return a decade 
of prolonged life. "When about to sacrifice his tenth son, 
the people interfered, and he died from old age. The last 
ten years of his life he was very feeble, drinking out of a 
horn like an infant. He was buried in a mound at Upsala. 

King Egil was the son of Ane, and, like his father, no 
warrior. Under his reign and that of his son, king Ottar, 
Sweden suffered a good deal of trouble from Denmark. 
The Danish kiag Frode had helped Egil against the re- 
volt of one of his subjects, and demanded from his son a 
scat, or tribute, in return. Ottar fell in battle against the 
jarls of Frode. Both he and his son Audils, who ruled 

.A. 

Svithiod after him, are mentioned in Beowulf as Ohthere 



38 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

and his son Eadgils of the royal Swedish line of the Scyl- 
fingas (Skilfings). This fact gives to Swedish history its 
first reliable date. The Danish king Hugleik, a contem- 
porary of King Ottar, died in 515 a.d., which renders with 
a certainty Ottar's reign as falling in the first part of the 
sixth century. Audils ruled for a long time and often went 
on viking expeditions to Saxonland, Denmark and Norway. 
In Saxonland, Audils captured the household of King Geir- 
thiof, among whom was a remarkably beautiful girl, called 
Yrsa. The king married her, but she was afterward taken 
to Denmark by King Helge of Leire after a successful plun- 
dering expedition in Svithiod. Helge had a son by her, 
Rolf Krake, but Yrsa returned to her first husband, after 
being told by Queen Alof, the wife of Geirthiof, that Helge 
was her father and Alof her mother. When Rolf Krake 
later became king his men once helped King Audils in one 
of his expeditions in Norway. King Rolf's men did not 
receive the compensation promised them, and Rolf came 
to Upsala to demand it for them. King Rolf was warned 
by his mother Yrsa that Audils was not well disposed, and 
he and his men made in haste for their ships. King Audils 
and his men started out in their pursuit. Then Rolf took a 
horn filled with gold, a recent gift of his mother, emptying 
its contents on the plain. Audils and his men stopped to 
pick up the gold, and Rolf thus made his escape. Rolf 
Krake is one of the most famous of Danish heroes. In the 
poetic language of the Old Northern literature, gold is often 
called "the seed of the Fyrisvols" or "Rolf Krake's seed." 
As King Audils once rode around the hall at a sacrifice his 
horse stumbled and fell, and the king was killed. 

Eystein, the son of Audils, ruled after him and was 
succeeded by his son Yngvar. Eystein was never able to 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 39 

defend his people against the Danes, while Yngvar was a 
successful warrior, both at home and abroad. But one 
summer when he was fighting in Esthonia he was killed 
by the Esthonians. He was buried in a mound close to 
the seashore. 

Anund was Yngvar 's son and successor. He went to 
Esthonia to avenge his father, ravaging the country and 
returning with great booty. In his time there were fruitful 
seasons in Svithiod. On this account, and because he made 
many roads, cleared the woods and cultivated the new land, 
he became one of the most popular of early Swedish kings. 
He was called Broet-Anund, viz., Anund Roadmaker. 

Ingiald, the son of Anund, became king in Upsala after 
his father. He was the most remarkable of all the Yng- 
lings (Skilfings), for, through violence and cunning, he 
united all the communities of Sweden into one realm. 
When his father died, the king at Upsala was certainly 
the supremely powerful ruler in Svithiod, but not the only 
one, for there were many district-kings who were to a great 
extent independent. There were not only kings in East 
Gothland, Soedermanland, and Nerike, but in Upland there 
were, besides the Upsala king, also kings in each of the 
three "lands" into which this province was formerly 
divided; viz., Tiundaland, Attundaland, and Fiedrunda- 
land. Ingiald ordered a great feast to celebrate the fact 
that he had come to the throne after his father, and invited 
seven other kings, all of whom were present, except Gran- 
mar, king of Soedermanland. When the Brage-bowl, on 
which promises were made, was carried in, King Ingiald 
made a solemn vow to enlarge his dominions by one-half, 
toward all the four corners of the world, or die. In the 
evening Ingiald set fire to the hall, and all the six royal 



40 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

guests perished with their followers. Ingiald took posses- 
sion of all the dominions belonging to the unfortunate 
kings. In the next year he surrounded the hall in 
which King Granmar found himself at the time, killing 
him and taking his land in possession. "It was a com- 
mon saying," Snorre tells us, "that King Ingiald had killed 
twelve kings and deceived them all under pretence of peace ; 
therefore he was called Ingiald Illrade (the evil-adviser)." 
His daughter, Asa, was of the same disposition as her 
father. She was married to Gudrod, king of Scania, but 
had to flee from the land after having caused the death of 
her husband and his brother. When it was learned that 
King Ivar, nephew of Gudrod, had entered Svithiod with 
an army, Asa counselled her father to set fire to the hall 
of the king after his men were drunk and asleep. Thus 
perished Ingiald Illrade with his daughter, very much in 
the same fashion in which he had killed so many of the 
petty kings. 

For the centuries following upon Ingiald's death, Snorre 
has a very short, or almost no account to give about Sweden 
and her rulers. What can be gathered from other sources, 
principally from late Icelandic sagas, is not trustworthy, 
mythical and fictitious elements being discernible. 

After Ingiald, Ivar Vidfamne (the Far-stretching) is 
said to have ruled Sweden, "also Denmark, Saxonland, all 
of Austria and one-fifth of England." One account has 
it that Ivar was the head of a new dynasty in Sweden. 
As he was originally king of Scania, perhaps these were 
the real Ynglings. Another source claims for the suc- 
ceeding Swedish kings descent from the old race of the 
Ynglings (viz., the Skilfings). Ingiald's son Olof, accord- 
ing to Snorre, fled to the woods of Vermland, until then 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 41 

uninhabited, and later came to Norway. But it is a mis- 
understanding of Thiodulf's lines which causes Snorre to 
say that King Olof was buried close by the Lake Venar, 
in Vermland. The province of Vermland was inhabited 
much earlier than in Olof's time, and the Olof who be- 
came the founder of a Norwegian dynasty was probably 
a Danish prince. 

Harald Hildetand of Denmark is said to have succeeded 
Ivar, and to have ruled over as much territory as his moth- 
er's father. Several sources speak of King Harald and the 
battle of Bravols, in which his life was ended and which 
battle generally is taken as a historic milestone, marking 
the opening of the Viking Age. It was fought somewhere 
about the year 740. King Harald had become old and 
almost blind. In Svithiod and West Gothland, the kings 
Sigurd and Ring (by the sagas made into one hero by the 
name "Sigurd Ring") ruled under Harald, while he reigned 
himself over Denmark and East Gothland. The relations 
were good at first, but their aspect soon changed. After 
great preparations on either side, Ring met Harald on the 
plains of Bravik in East Gothland. The battle was a long 
and bloody one and the most renowned in song and saga. 
King Harald, too old to take an active part, mounted a 
chariot, which carried him into the midst of the fight. 
When King Ring at last saw the chariot empty, he under- 
stood that the aged king had fallen and gave the sign that 
the battle should come to an end. King Ring caused the 
remains of his fallen foe to be burned with great pomp and 
ceremony on a pile with his horse, weapons and many a 
costly treasure of gold and silver. King Ring was said to 
have been ruler of Sweden and Denmark after King Harald. 
The sagas mention the hero, Ragnar Lodbrok, as his son 



42 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

and successor. While this great viking and sea-king ap- 
pears to have been a historic personage in the earlier half 
of the ninth century, it is impossible that he could have 
been identical with King Ring's son Bagnar, or that he 
or his sons ever were kings in Upsala or Sweden. 

With the first attempts to introduce Christianity into 
Sweden (of which more later) a more definite knowledge 
of Swedish rulers and conditions is gained. When Ansgar, 
the apostle of Sweden, visited the country for the first time, 
about 830, the ruling king was Bioern. Shortly afterward 
King Anund is mentioned. He fled from his land, but was 
reinstated with the help of the Danes. King Olof was on the 
throne at the time of Ansgar's second visit to Sweden, about 
850. These kings must have been of the same family as 
those who held the throne up to the middle of the eleventh 
century, for their names all occur again in the line of later 
Swedish kings, the reigns of whom fall in the broad light 
of history. 

We have seen how Ingiald Illrade joined the various 
communities into one single realm. Although there is doubt 
whether this realm from the start embraced all Sweden, 
there is no historical evidence or any reliable traditions 
whatever to show that Sweden was ever divided into 
smaller kingdoms after the death of King Ingiald. When 
Ansgar reaches Sweden he travels through half of the coun- 
try in order to reach the commercial centre of Birka, where 
the king of Sweden is dwelling. No other king, great 
or petty, is spoken of, while the contemporary Icelanders 
mention jarls (earls) in Gothaland, which proves that the 
once independent kings in that district were made away 
with. 

Of particular importance is the account of a journey 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 43 

which a certain Wulfstan made to the North, at the close 
of the ninth century. This account is given in an Old En- 
glish translation of Orosii Historia, credited to King Alfred 
of England. Thus it runs: "Wulfstan said that he went 
from Schleswig to Truso in seven days, that the ship was all 
the way running under sail. Wendland was on his right, 
but Langeland, Lolland, Falster and Scania on his left, and 
all these lands belong to Denmark, and then Bornholm was 
on our left, which has a king of its own. Then after Born- 
holm, the lands of Bleking, Moere, (Eland, and Gotland, 
were first on our left, and these lands belong to Sweden." 
Wulf stan's account, besides furnishing evidence to prove 
the political consolidation of Sweden, also gives a good idea 
of the size of the country in this period. The once inde- 
pendent province of Scania, which had kings of its own, 
already belongs to Denmark. So does also the province 
of Halland, while Bohuslaen belongs to Norway. Dal and 
Vermland are contested provinces between the kings of 
Sweden and Norway, while great parts of Norrland are 
yet uninhabited, except by Laps, who ramble from one 
place to another, without a fixed dwelling place. In King 
Alfred's Orosius, Danish Jutland and Swedish Gautland 
(Gothaland) are alike called Gotland, which recalls the 
supposition of the majority of modern scholars that Gotland 
was in the earliest times the common Teutonic name of 
the North, and Goths the common name of its Teutonic 
inhabitants. 



CHAPTER III 

The Viking Age — Ansgar, the Apostle of Sweden 

\ N the North there is a great ocean, and in this ocean 
there is a large island called Scandza, out of whose 
loins our race burst forth like a swarm of bees and 
spread over Europe." These were the words the Gothic 
historian Jordanes put on parchment, inspired by the pop- 
ular traditions of a Teutonic migration from the North. 
Historic evidence is lacking to prove or disprove the truth 
of these words. But they may be applied to the phenom- 
enon which has given its name to the Viking Age. 

The Viking expeditions seem to stand in connection with 
the great Teutonic migrations, at least to be related to 
them in nature. The Teutons of the North were not di- 
rectly affected by the migrations, but at the close of the 
eighth century the same restlessness and desire of expan- 
sion appear to have taken possession of the Northmen as 
in earlier times of their relatives in more southerly lands. 
And it was a timely move, for the energy and strength 
with which these had in their time suffused Europe were 
dying out. Europe was in need of new blood and iron to 
wake her from her anaemia and to build up new institu- 
tions. The North was freed from a turbulent and lawless 
element and was brought in closer contact than ever before 
(44) 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 45 

with the learning and culture of the world. For centuries 
the Northmen had through their southern kinsmen been 
in contact with continental culture. But now they came 
out to see for themselves, to make themselves a place in 
a wider and richer world, or to bring home from there 
what they most desired of beauty, riches and culture. 
They were not delicate as to means. Violence was with 
them as natural as their freedom of individuality was in- 
dispensable. Yet they were to play a most important part 
in the cultural development of Europe, furnishing her with 
institutions of imperishable iron and changing the dark- 
ness of the Middle Ages into an era of chivalry in spirit 
and in deeds. 

The Viking expeditions were always undertaken by free 
men, and were in the North, from remotest times, consid- 
ered not only an honest but an honorable occupation. Slaves 
and freed men were excluded. The leaders — often kings 
or their sons — were always men of noble descent or of 
importance. As the Viking expeditions took on larger 
proportions, they became more and more organized; from 
random expeditions, undertaken by individuals, they de- 
veloped into national undertakings, led by the king or his 
chieftains, not for a pastime, but in completion of a national 
policy. On account of this latest aspect, it is but just to 
divide the field in which the Northmen were active accord- 
ing to their respective nationalities. With such a division 
applied, the Viking expeditions to the West, to Britain, 
France, Portugal and Spain do not pertain to Swedish 
history, for they were planned and undertaken principally 
by Danes and Norwegians. It is true that there were many 
Swedish participants also in these expeditions, as the sagas 
and the memorial stones on Swedish soil tell us; also true 



46 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

that some of the later Swedish provinces, like Bohuslsen 1 
and Scania, sent out their large contingents of Vikings and 
sea-kings to the West, and that one of the oldest Swedish 
homes of culture, "West Gothland, had an appropriate 
channel to the West, by way of the mighty Gotha River, 
through which without doubt many a Viking expedition 
was sent; yet the leaders were in a majority of cases Dan- 
ish or Norwegian chieftains. For similar reasons the Vi- 
king expeditions to the East belong by right to Swedish 
history. In them the participants and chieftains were 
Swedes, to an overwhelming majority, and, from time 
immemorial, Swedish districts from which the expeditions 
were started. 

To Russia the Swedes first went on marauding expedi- 
tions; but after the countries of the North had been shaped 
into three large monarchies, they came to Russia upon 
special invitation, in order to found there a realm of strong 
and consistent government. This becomes evident from 
the testimony of the Russian historian Nestor, a monk in 
Kief, who lived in the latter part of the eleventh century. 
About the founding of the Russian empire by the Swedes 
he has the following remarkable statements: 

"In the year 6367 (after the creation of the world, which 
is the 859th after the birth of Christ) the Variagi (or Varan- 
gians) came across the sea, taking tribute from the Tchud 
and the Slavs," etc.— "In the year 6370 (862 a.d.) they 
chased the Variagi back across the sea, giving them no 
tribute and commencing to govern themselves, but it turned 
out badly with legal affairs, tribe rose against tribe, caus- 

1 The ancient name of this province, Viken, probably is the key to 
the disputed etymology of the word Viking. 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 47 

ing strife, and a rebellion was started. Then they said 
between themselves: 'Let us seek a p/ince who will gov- 
ern us and reason with us justly!' And they went across 
the sea to the Variagi, to the Russians, for thus were the 
Variagi called, just as others were called Sviar, others Nur- 
manni, others Anglii, and others Goths. And the Tchudi 
(the Slavs of Novgorod), the Slavs, the Krivitchi and the 
Vessi said to the Russians, 'Our land is great and fruitful, 
but it lacks order and justice; come and take possession, 
and govern us!' And three brothers with their followers 
were selected, and they took the whole of Rus with them 
and came. And the oldest, Rurik, took his abode in Novgo- 
rod, the second, Sineus, his in Bielo-Jesero, and the third, 
his in Isborsk; his name was Truvor. After two years 
Sineus and his brother Truvor died. Rurik then took the 
whole power into his hands and gave towns over to his 
men, giving to one Polotsk, to another Rostof, and to a 
third Bielo-Jesero. And into these towns the Variagi have 
migrated; the earlier inhabitants in Novgorod were Slavs, 
in Polotsk, Krivitchi, in Rostof, Meri, and in Bielo-Jesero, 
Vessi.' ' 

That the Variagi were of Swedish descent, and that it 
was they who gave the name of Russia to the Slav coun- 
tries, is proved beyond the possibility of a doubt. A most 
weighty argument is the large number of Swedish names 
in the list of Variag princes who reigned in Russia. It 
would not have been possible for Nestor to devise the more 
than one hundred leading names of Swedish origin which 
occur in his chronicle. Furthermore, it has been shown that 
there are fifteen Swedish loanwords in Russian. This is 
very much. Great and powerful nations have left behind 
a good deal less in modern languages, the Vandals three 



48 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

words, the Burgundians four or five, the Herulians one. 
Although the Swedes in Russia had no literature in their 
ancestral language, they have left behind more words than 
the majority of Teutonic tribes founding states and na- 
tions. The Old Swedish equivalents to some of the 
most important proper names which meet us in early Rus- 
sian history are as follows : Rurik==Hrcerekr, Sineus=Sign- 
jotr, Truvor=Tryggve, 01eg=Helge, 01ga=Helga, Igor= 
Inge, Ingvar. 

For two hundred years after Rurik, all the leading men 
in Russian history carry Swedish names, and all the czars 
of Russia were the descendants of Rurik, up to the year 
1598. The emperor and historian Constantine Porphyro- 
genitus, speaking of Russia, makes the distinction between 
the Slavs and the Russians proper. In his description of 
the cataracts of the Dniepr, he gives to each the Russian 
and the Slav name, and these Russian names are nearly 
all understood by reference to old Swedish roots. Exam- 
ples are Gellandri (Gellandi)=the Noisy, Eyforr=the Al- 
ways Turbulent. Luitprand, the Italian chronicler, speak- 
ing of the Russians, says: "The Greeks call them Russians, 
we call them properly Northmen." The annals of St. 
Bertinus tell how Emperor Theophilus recommended some 
Russian envoys to Louis le Debonnaire, but how he, taking 
them for Norman spies, threw them into prison. The first 
Russian Code of Laws, compiled by laroslaf, presents a 
striking analogy to the Old Swedish laws. 

The Slavs must have originally borrowed the name Rus- 
sian from the Finns, who, up to the present day, call the 
Swedes Ruotsi. The name is in Sweden connected with 
a part of the coast of Upland still called Roslagen. The 
etymology of the name is Old Swedish rodr (rudder) 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 49 

and rodsmenn (oarsmen). Roslagen means " associations 
of oarsmen. " The district is famous for its large pecul- 
iar rowboats. By the term Russians, the Slavs originally- 
meant people from Roslagen, later Sweden in general. But 
when these Russians had become the founders of a new 
empire, south of the Baltic, it became necessary to devise 
a new name for the inhabitants of Sweden. This name 
was found in Variagi. Only the Swedes seeking employ- 
ment as sworn warriors in the service of the new Russian 
dynasty, or in the body-guard of the Byzantine emperors, 
were originally thus called. But when the name of the 
new nation of Swedes and Slavs became Russians, the 
Swedes, and the Scandinavians in general, became known 
as Variagi. The etymology of the word has been given as 
the Old Swedish vdr (sacramentum) and vceringar (sac- 
rament arii, soldiers bound by oath). The same name ap- 
plied to Swedes, or Northmen, occurs frequently in slightly 
altered forms in Greek and Arabic manuscripts. 

While Rurik and his brothers were building towns, 
which probably means the fortifying of ancient villages, 
two other Variagi, Askold and Dir, who were not of the 
family of Rurik, went down to Kief, and reigned over the 
Poliane. It was they who began the expeditions against 
Byzantium in 865. In speaking of this, Nestor calls the 
Bosphorus Sud, an Old Swedish word meaning a sound. 
The Bosphorus is also called Sud on a Swedish memorial 
stone over a man who was killed in a similar expedition. 

Oleg, the fourth brother of Rurik, was his successor, 
his son Igor being yet a minor. He was an energetic man 
and a great administrator. 

Smolensk, Lubetch and Kief were captured, and Askold 

and Dir put to death. Between the years 879-912, Oleg 

xx 3 



50 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

organized the Russian empire. For the sake of commerce, 
he tried to preserve peace with the Greeks, but when diffi- 
culties arose he called in new armies from Sweden and 
great expeditions started against Byzantium. But these 
Variagi were an unruly element, and, in order to satisfy 
their desire for war and booty, the Russian rulers always 
let a plundering expedition to the Caspian Sea follow every 
unsuccessful attack upon Byzantium; also when war with 
the Greeks was avoided through decrees of peace, expedi- 
tions to the Caspian Sea took place. 

These expeditions against the Arabs, who inhabited the 
coasts of the Caspian Sea, were neither in any marked 
degree successful. Masudi is the first author among the 
Arabs who mentions the expeditions of the Swedes. They 
came down the river Volga in their ships. The Arabs 
describe the "Rus" as blond and "tall as palm-trees." 
The burial of a Rus is described by Ibn Fosslan, who vis- 
ited Bulgaria in 921. "The hero was burned in a ship 
with weapons, horses, dogs and a woman." In 965, the 
Israelite, Ibrahim Ibn Jakub, made a journey to Germany. 
He tells that the Arabs in his day with Rus (Russians) 
meant partly the Swedes of Sweden, "who often came in 
ships from the West to plunder," partly the Swedes settled 
in Russia, ' ' who speak the language of the Slavs, on account 
of admixture with them." 

It was the destiny of the Swedes in Russia to exchange 
their language for that of the Slavs and finally to absorb 
Slav customs. Such might not have been the case if they 
had been greater in numbers, or if their coming had been 
deferred to a later, Christian period, when to a strong form 
of government would have been added a strong Church 
organization. Yet their influence was greater than that 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 51 

of the Vikings in any other country, for the Russian empire 
was entirely a Northern creation. 

To follow further the Rurik dynasty would lead us away 
from Swedish into Russian history. But let us mention 
that Oleg was succeeded by Rurik's son Igor, who also 
was a great war-lord, and undertook the third expedition 
of Russians and Variagi against Byzantium. His widow 
was the celebrated Olga, who was converted to Christianity 
and afterward canonized. She reigned during the minority 
of her son Sviatoslaf, whose conversion she was never able 
to effect. Sviatoslaf's son and grandson, Saint Vladimir 
and Jaroslaf the Great, were the Clovis and the Charle- 
magne of Russia. 

After the conquest of Kief, Oleg commanded a tribute 
to be paid to the Variagi "for the preservation of peace." 
This tribute to the Swedes was paid up to the death of 
Jaroslaf, who in 1019 gave assurance to the king of Upsala 
that it should be paid regularly, Vladimir having neglected 
to do so. This tribute could be nothing else than a scat 
paid to the king of Sweden by the rulers of Russia during 
the ninth and tenth centuries. Sweden possessed in those 
days a large territory south of the Baltic, which paid scat 
to the king of Upsala. It was called Austria (Austerike), 
and reference to it under this name is often made in sagas, 
chronicles and inscriptions. Ynglinga Saga gives incidents 
of close Swedish connections to Finland and the Baltic prov- 
inces, and archaeological finds point to Swedish settlements 
in Finland, already in the prehistoric period. Memories of 
conquests are preserved in statements by the Icelanders 
and by Saxo, the Danish historian, about the Austria of 
which the Swedish kings Ivar Vidfamne, Harald Hilde- 
tand, "Sigurd" Ring and Ragnar "Lodbrok" were rulers. 



52 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

Closest to an exact statement comes Snorre, who says that 
King Eric Edmundson of Sweden ruled over Finland, Ca- 
relia, Esthonia, Courland and "wide over all Austria." 
These countries belonged to Sweden until King Olof Skcet- 
konung "let all his scatlands get away from him." The 
chronicler Rimbert says that Courland, by which he means 
the Baltic provinces, in 850 belonged to Sweden. Shortly 
after this date fall, according to Nestor, those of the first 
Swedish contact with interior Russia (859) and of the found- 
ing of the Russian empire by Rurik (862). The Swedish 
dominion in the Baltic provinces, as well as the early Rus- 
sian empire, must consequently have held a position similar 
to the one of Norrnandie to France and England. 

The old Swedish name for Russia was Gardarike, for 
Novgorod Holmgard and for Byzantium Miklagard, which 
mean "Country of towns," "Island town," and "Great 
town," respectively. 

Vladimir of Russia, in 980, sent a number of Yariagi 
to the emperor. But already the emperors had prob- 
ably surrounded themselves with a small standing army 
of Yariagi or Barangoi, as they were called by the Greeks. 
They were treated with a good deal of respect and consid- 
eration, and in the North it was considered a distinction to 
have served in Miklagard, which even the sons of kings 
eagerly sought for. Soon not only Swedes, but also Nor- 
wegians, Danes and Icelanders were attracted, and Ice- 
landic sources have a good many, in part wildly exag- 
gerated, accounts of the Yariagi and their experiences in 
Miklagard. The Northmen were relied upon to support the 
tottering empire, and were despatched to the points where 
the hardest combats were fought. They had officers of their 
own nationality, and the strictest discipline was maintained. 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 53 

About the year 1050 a detachment of Variagi were accepted 
into the body-guard of the emperor, surrounding his person 
on all great occasions and in public ; also keeping watch over 
the imperial palace. When the emperor died, they had, 
according to Snorre, the privilege of passing through his 
treasury, each taking along all he could carry off. Another 
privilege of theirs was that they were allowed to keep their 
heathen faith in the midst of the Christian surroundings. 

Many and various as the reasons for the Viking expedi- 
tions must have been, the principal cause that led to their 
abolition was the contact with Christianity abroad, and the 
introduction of its teaching in the heathen North. The first 
missionaries to Sweden were sent by Louis the Pious, but 
Christianity was not entirely unknown before their arrival. 
For centuries, the Swedes had through commercial expedi- 
tions stood in direct or indirect contact with the Christian 
world, and this had brought home some knowledge of "the 
white Christ" and his gospel of peace. Many Northmen 
had been baptized while dwelling in foreign lands, and 
many must the Christian thralls have been who contin- 
ually were brought into the country. The influence thes® 
elements exerted probably could be traced to the ennobliug 
and developing of heathen myths, rather than to direct 
Christian conversions. And a similar influence of Roman 
and Greek myths, without doubt, exerted upon the North 
in earlier historic times. 

Ansgar, a learned and pious monk from the convent of 
Corvey, became the apostle of Sweden. He had spent two 
years in Denmark as a missionary when called upon by 
Emperor Louis to visit Sweden. Louis the Pious had re- 
ceived the assurance by Swedish emissaries that the new 
faith would not meet with any obstacle, and that many 



54 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

were willing to embrace it. Ansgar started in the year of 
830, accompanied by Witmar, also of the Corvey convent. 
They were well received by King Bioern, and were able to 
comfort many Christians in Swedish captivity, besides con- 
verting some of the inhabitants. Among the converts was 
the powerful Jarl Herger, who for a long period was the 
chief supporter of Christianity in Sweden. After about a 
year and a half, Ansgar and Witmar returned to the em- 
peror, who, satisfied with the result of their mission, erected 
a special archbishopric in Hamburg for the spiritual needs 
of the North. Ansgar was made the archbishop and, with 
Ebo, archbishop of Rheims, apostolic legate among Swedes, 
Danes and Slavs. At the same time, Gauzbert was made 
the first bishop of Sweden under the name of Simon. He 
went to Sweden and was well received by its king and peo- 
ple. But a revolt against the new faith soon rose among 
the heathens, not issuing from the king but from the people. 
Gauzbert was captured and with contumely escorted out of 
the country, while his relative, Mthard, was killed, thus 
becoming the first Christian martyr in Sweden. For seven 
years the country was without a preacher of the Gospel, 
until Ansgar sent thither a new missionary, Ardgar, who 
stayed there preaching until the death of Herger. In the 
meantime Vikings had destroyed Hamburg, and not before 
its bishopric had been united to that of Bremen was Ansgar 
in a position to visit Sweden for a second time. This he 
effected early in the fifties of the ninth century, coming this 
time as a kind of ambassador from the kings of Denmark 
and Germany to give more importance to his mission. The 
heathen partisans, who recently had accepted the departed 
King Eric among the gods, resented, and the reigning king, 
Olof, dared not grant Ansgar the right to preach. The dif- 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 55 

ficulty was solved through the ancient custom of throwing 
dice. Ansgar was successful in the proceedings, and his 
cause was then brought before the Thing (or Assembly) for 
deliberation. The people decided that permission should 
be granted to preach the Gospel, principally on the grounds 
set forth by an old man who rose to remind the Thing that 
the new God had already helped a good many, and that 
it was a good thing to have him to fall back on when the 
old gods failed. After having built churches and baptized 
a great number, Ansgar returned home, leaving behind 
Erimbert, a relative of Gauzbert's. Archbishop Rimbert 
was Ansgar's successor, himself visiting Sweden. After 
his death, the archbishops of the North seem to have 
ceased taking interest in Swedish missions. The little 
church, left to itself, soon succumbed. When at last one 
of the archbishops, Unne, woke up to the necessity of visit- 
ing Sweden, he found that the Gospel was forgotten. He 
was himself surprised by death while in Sweden, and buried 
in the town of Birka, in 936. Numerous graves of the 
earlier Christians in Sweden have been found on the site 
of the old commercial centre of Birka in the island Bioerkoe, 
in the Lake Mselar, unburned bodies in wooden coffins, and 
the graves without mounds. 

King Eric Edmundson was a contemporary of Rimbert. 
He was engaged in building up a Swedish dominion in Fin- 
land and on the southern shores of the Baltic. With King 
Herald Fairhair of Norway he was disputing the suprem- 
acy over the province of Vermland. He was succeeded by 
his son Bicern, who is said to have reigned for fifty years. 
Olof and Eric, Bicern's two sons, succeeded him, the former 
dying suddenly at a banquet. His young son, Styrbicern 
Starke (the Strong), one of the most famous of Swedish 



56 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

heroes, demanded his share of the kingdom when only 
twelve years old. When King Eric told him he was yet 
too young, Styrbicern two springs in succession installed 
himself on the mound of his father, by so doing making 
claim upon his inheritance, according to old usage. But 
when he came to the Thing to demand his share in the gov- 
ernment he was chased away with stone-throwing. King 
Eric gave him sixty ships with men and weapons to try his 
luck in Viking expeditions. Styrbicern won great fame 
during several years of continual warfare in the Baltic, 
capturing the mighty Jomsborg, a celebrated Viking nest 
in the island of "Wollin, later turning his weapons upon 
Denmark, where he made the Danish king Harald Gormson 
Bluetooth a prisoner. He now felt strong enough to attack 
his uncle, King Eric. Harald Bluetooth was to help him, 
but failed to do so. Styrbicern sailed with a fleet to Swe- 
den; after having landed he burned his ships to make a 
return impossible. King Eric met him at the Fyrisvols 
and fought a battle which was said to have lasted for 
three days. Styrbicern fell, and with him the larger part 
of his army. His uncle, the king, was after this called 
Eric Segerscell (the Victorious). After the battle the king 
ascended a high mound, promising a great compensation to 
the one who could compose a song in praise of the victory. 
The Icelander Thorvald Hialte, who never previously or 
afterward appeared as a scald, came forth and recited two 
strophes which are preserved to our day, receiving a costly 
armlet of gold as reward. This battle — next to the one at 
Bravols, the most famous in the heathen North— was fought 
in 988. 

King Eric invaded Denmark and took possession of the 
country, making the son of Harald Bluetooth an exile, to 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 57 

which facts Saxo, the Danish historian, testifies. In Den- 
mark Eric was baptized, the first Swedish king about whom 
this is said. But upon his return to Sweden he also returned 
to the old gods. Eric Segerssell was king of Sweden and 
Denmark until his death, which occurred in 994. His first 
consort, Sigrid Storrada (the Proud), from whom he later 
separated, played quite an important part in the history of 
her time. After the death of Eric, she married the exiled 
Svend Tjufvusksegg (their son being Canute the Great), 
who through this matrimony came to the throne of 
Denmark. 

Olof Skoetkonung, the son of Eric and Sigrid, succeeded 
his father. His surname is supposed to mean "the lap 
king," but he was no longer a minor at the death of King 
Eric. King Olof was not a powerful or energetic ruler, like 
the father. He let go, one after the other, the lands of his 
crown. Denmark regained its independence, and he lost 
also the scat-paying dominions south of the Baltic. Shortly 
after Olof ascended the throne, the Norwegian king, Olaf 
Tryggvason, had demanded Sigrid Storrada in marriage 
and obtained her consent. But when King Olaf asked her 
to become a Christian, she refused to change faith, where- 
upon he insulted her. Sigrid told him that this should 
cause his death. Two years later, when Sigrid was the 
wife of King Svend of Denmark, she prevailed upon her 
son and her husband to join hands in assailing Olaf Trygg- 
vason, who was expected back from an expedition to the 
lands of the Vends. The compact was made, and the 
Norwegian jarls, Eric and Svein, entered it. These all 
collected an immense fleet, which assailed the unsuspecting 
Olaf at Svolder, close by the coast of Pomerania. The 
Norwegian king lost the day and his life. This famous 



58 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

battle was fought in 1000, the kings of Sweden and Den- 
mark also taking a personal part in it. Norway was divided 
between the victors. The Swedish king received as his 
share the districts of Drontheim and Bohuslsen. These he 
granted to Jctrl Svein, who was the betrothed of his sister 
Hoi mf rid. Fifteen years later they were recaptured by the 
Norwegian king. 

Olaf Tryggvason had been a devout Christian. His 
sister Ingeborg was married to Jarl Ragnvald of West 
Gothland, who was baptized and invited Christian mission- 
aries to Sweden. Through such influences King Olof Skcet- 
konung was at last converted and baptized by Sigfrid, a 
German missionary, at Husaby in West Gothland, in the 
year 1008. Sigfrid, who has been supposed to be of En- 
glish parentage and a bishop of York, evidently came from 
Germany. He preached for a long period in West Goth- 
land and Vserend, in the latter district once being attacked 
by heathen men, who killed three of his companions. King 
Olof himself saw to it that the murderers were punished, 
and Sigfrid continued his noble work without molestation. 
He was later worshipped as a saint. Among other mission- 
aries who were active in converting the various provinces 
may be mentioned the Anglo-Saxon St. David, the apostle 
of Westmanland, the Anglo-Saxon St. Eskil and the Swede 
St. Botvid, the apostles of Scedermanland, and the German 
Stenfi, or Simon, the apostle of Norrland. St. David was 
a contemporary of St. Sigfrid, while the others were a few 
generations younger. It was' first through influence from 
England and Denmark, during the reign of Canute the 
Great, that Swedish conversions became more widespread 
and general. 

King Olof 's conversion met with a great deal of opposi- 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 59 

tion, especially in Svealand, which longest remained hea- 
then. Upsala, with its temple, was the heathen strong- 
hold of the North, and there the king had always, as one 
of his principal duties, to preside over the great sacrifices. 
King Olof was forced to accept the decision of a Thing 
which granted him freedom to select some part of the king- 
dom wherein to build churches and perform the duties of 
the new cult, but which forbade him to use his influence 
toward the conversion of his subjects. For this reason 
Olof dwelt principally in the more and more christianized 
West Gothland, in the capital of which province, Skara, 
a bishop was installed. The name of the first bishop was 
Turgot. Only after more than two centuries of endeavor 
was the Christian Church firmly established in Sweden, in 
the middle of the eleventh century; but even at that time 
the great mass of the people were heathen in name. The 
heathen party was so strong that it could for a long time, 
and occasionally with success, keep up the battle against 
Christianity. It took yet another century before the com- 
plete victory of Christianity was an assured fact. 

The reasons for the slow progress of Christianity in 
Sweden were many, the principal one not being an opposi- 
tion to the Christian doctrines. The superstitious change 
easily from one cult to another. The sceptics do not believe 
more in one god than in another. Of heathen sceptics 
there were a great many in the North who believed in noth- 
ing else than their own strength. But it was the Christian 
morals which were so difficult for the Swedes to accept. 
Accustomed to great personal liberty, they could not en- 
dure the restraint which Christian morals placed upon the 
individual. The very spirit of Christianity, with its kind- 
liness and meekness, was not attractive to the Northman, 



tfO HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

who in his own mental and physical force found a tower 
of strength. The period of the first attempts at conver- 
sion was not well chosen. The whole North was inflamed 
by the Viking rage for war and plunder. Then followed 
a period of disinterestedness when the good seed was sown 
but the field neglected. Later the too arduous zeal of the 
priests called forth criticism and resistance from the Swedes, 
so tardy in making a decision and so careful in weighing 
reasons for and against. 

To this must be added the great prestige of the Upsala 
temple as the heathen arc of worship in the North, and the 
influence of the scalds and saga men of Iceland. Iceland 
was discovered in 870, and settled principally by Norsemen 
from the British Isles and from the western coast of Nor- 
way, but also to some extent by Swedes and Danes. Sud- 
den and brilliant was the rise of Icelandic culture, and 
Icelandic scalds overran the whole territory of the North. 
At the court of every king and jarl these were at home, 
sometimes in great numbers, and soon to the exclusion of 
the native poets. For their poetry, both as to contents and 
form, they were chiefly dependent upon the heathen myths 
and traditions, and the result of their popularity must have 
been a perfect heathen revival in those days of growing 
scepticism. Through intercourse with Christians in Britain, 
the Icelanders had borrowed many a noble trait, and their 
taste found admirers in the old North, where such influ- 
ence must have been felt through centuries of indirect con- 
tact with lands of classical or Christian culture. We are 
told of the great number of southern coins found in Swed- 
ish soil. Which travel further and faster, thoughts or 
coins, and which are the more impressionable? So although 
it would be unjust to deprive the Icelandic poetry, the im- 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 61 

pressive and grand Eddie songs and the more artificial 
court-poetry, of any of its beauty or originality, it is not 
right to ascribe all the culture, whose blossom it is, to Ice- 
land, or Iceland and Norway, to the exclusion of Sweden 
and Denmark, or the Teutonic world at large. Good epic 
poetry has been written all over Teutondom. In Sweden 
strophes in the very metre of the majority of Eddie poems 
have been found on tombstones. In the same manner with 
the contents of the Eddie poems. Granting important ex- 
ceptions, we think that the heathen myths have been the 
same in the East as in the extreme West. The very fact 
that Icelandic court-poetry was accepted and enjoyed by 
continental chieftains presupposes a thorough knowledge 
and mastery of the more popular poetry of Eddie songs of 
gods and heroes. 

Hence the revival of heathendom in the North, by which 
a king like Olof Skcetkonung for a long time was influ- 
enced, finding his chief delight in the association with poets 
and saga men. 

In Norway, Olaf Haraldson had ascended the throne, 
and he put an end to Swedish dominion in the Norwegian 
districts. This caused strife, and also considerable annoy- 
ance to the provinces touching the frontier. Popular feel- 
ing rose high in Sweden, when the demands for a peace 
guarantee with Norway were disregarded by King Olof. 
Jarl Ragnvald sided with the people, desiring a union be- 
tween the Norwegian king and King Olof's daughter In- 
gegerd. At a great Thing held in Upsala, in 1018, King 
Olof listened to Norwegian emissaries pleading for peace 
and a royal marriage. Jarl Ragnvald complained of the 
annoyance caused to his people of West Gothland. King 
Olof became indignant, but was, through the forcible yet 



62 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

dignified appeal for peace by Torgny, the lagman (justice) 
of Tiundaland, compelled to a promise of peace and a con- 
cession of marriage. But the king did not keep his prom- 
ises. A betrothal was arranged but soon annulled by Olof, 
and the Norwegian king was in vain expecting his prom- 
ised bride. At the instigation of Jarl Ragnvald, Olaf 
Haraldson married King Olof 's illegitimate daughter Astrid. 
As this was done without the consent of her father, Ragn- 
vald dared not remain in Sweden. He went to Gardarike 
(Russia), where he died shortly afterward, in 1019, his 
widow, the princess Ingegerd, in Novgorod becoming the 
wife of the Russian ruler Jaroslaf. 

In Sweden, trouble was brewing against the king, who 
had broken faith with his people, and in order to avoid 
open revolt King Olof was forced to divide his power with 
one of his sons, who, although yet a minor, was solemnly 
elected king. He had in baptism received the name of 
Jacob, which so displeased his heathen subjects that it was 
changed to Anund. King Olof also agreed to maintain 
peace with Norway, meeting his son-in-law at Konghaell, 
in Bohuslaen, in 1019, for a peace agreement. King Olof 
died two years later and was buried by the church of 
Husaby, where he was baptized. He was the first king 
who introduced coinage into Sweden. The earliest coins 
were made of silver by Anglo-Saxons settled in Sigtuma, 
and resemble closely Anglo-Saxon coins of the same period. 

After the death of his father King Anund ruled alone. 
He entered into an alliance with his brother-in-law of Nor- 
way against Canute, who now was king both of Denmark 
and England. During Canute's absence, Anund and Olaf 
invaded Denmark. In the subsequent strife between Olaf 
and Canute, Anund took no active part. King Olaf had 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 63 

to flee to Russia. Upon his return he gathered an army 
in. Sweden, with the help of Anund, and entered Norway 
through Jemtland. At Stiklastad he met the much superior 
Norwegian army, and lost his battle and his life, in 1030. 
After his death, the sentiment in Norway changed radi- 
cally, and he was worshipped as a saint throughout the 
North. 

Of Anund's reign little is known. Adam of Bremen, 
an ecclesiastic, whose history of the diocese of Hamburg 
and Bremen, during the period 788-1072, is one of the most 
important sources of Swedish history in heathen times, says 
of Anund: " Young in years, he excelled in wisdom and 
piety all his predecessors; no king was more beloved by the 
Swedish people than Anund.' ' The historian gives as his 
authority the Danish king Svend Estridsen, who as an 
exile stayed at Anund's court. Anund died in 1050 and 
was succeeded by his older half-brother Emuni^ surnamed 
the Old. He was the son of a freed woman, the daughter 
of a Vendish chief. For this reason he had been passed 
over at the first election. Emund was educated by his 
mother's relatives, was baptized, but was not much of a 
Christian. He was popular neither with the new Christian 
church nor with the people at large. Emund's unpopu- 
larity with the masses was caused by an agreement with 
Denmark in regard to the boundaries when he ceded the 
province of Bleking. Emund died in 1060. With him 
the old royal line became extinct. A new line comes to 
the throne of Sweden, where, with the general acceptance 
of Christianity, a new era commences. 



CHAPTER IV 

Early Christian Era — StenkiVs Line and Interchang- 
ing Dynasties 

THE sources of Swedish history during the first two 
centuries of the Middle Ages are very meagre. 
This is a deplorable fact, for during that period 
Sweden passed through a great and thorough develop- 
ment, the various stages of which consequently are not 
easily traced, 

Before th year of 1060 Sweden is an Old Teutonic 
state, certain / of later form and a larger compass than 
the earliest of such, but with its democracy and its elec- 
tive kingdom preserved. The older Sweden, such as it 
had existed at least since the days of Ingiald Illrade, was 
in regard to its constitution a rudimentary union of states. 
The realm had come into existence through the cunning 
and violence of the king of the Sviar, who made away 
with the kings of the respective lands, making their com- 
munities pay homage to him. No change in the interior 
affairs of the different lands was thereby effected; they 
lost their outward political independence, but remained 
mutually on terms of perfect equality. They were united 
only through the king, who was the only centre for the 
government of the union. No province had constitution- 
ally more importance than the rest, no supremacy by one 
(64) 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 65 

over the other existed. On this historic basis the Swedish 
realm was built, and rested firmly until the commence- 
ment of the Middle Ages. In the Old Swedish state- 
organism the various parts thus possessed a high degree 
of individual and pulsating life; the empire as a whole was 
also powerful, although the royal dignity was its only in- 
stitution. The king was the outward tie which bound the 
provinces together; besides him there was no power of 
state which embraced the whole realm. The affairs of 
state were decided upon by the king alone, as in regard to 
war, or he had to gather the opinion of the Thing in each 
province; any imperial representation did not exist and 
was entirely unknown, both in the modern sense and in 
the form of one provincial, or sectional, assembly deciding 
for all the others. The latter form is one of transition, the 
modern form the ripe fruit, both brought out by the his- 
toric development. In society there existed no classes. It 
was a democracy of free men, the slaves and freed men en- 
joying no rights. The first centuries of the Middle Ages 
were one continued process of regeneration, the Swedish 
people being carried into the European circle of cultural 
development and made a communicant of Christianity. 
With the commencement of the thirteenth century Sweden 
comes out of this process as a mediaeval state, in aspect 
entirely different to her past. The democratic equality 
among free men has turned into an aristocracy, with aris- 
tocratic institutions, the hereditary kingdom into an elec- 
tive, or, at least, into one close upon turning into an elective, 
kingdom, while the provincial particularism and independ- 
ence have given way to the constitution of a centralized, 
monopolistic state. No changes could be more funda- 
mental. 



66 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

For lack of sources the historians were, until quite re- 
cently, led to the belief that the change was due to one 
tribe in gaining the ascendency over another, the political 
supremacy changing from one part of the country to an- 
other. The epoch was called "The Struggle between 
Swedes and Goths,' ' "The Struggle about the election of 
kings between Swedes and Goths." Now it is generally 
admitted that the straggle was between principles, not be- 
tween tribes. The circumstances sometimes were such that 
one section or province opposed others, but these divisions 
never were identical or at all depended upon racial or tribal 
conditions. It was a struggle between heathendom and 
Christianity, democracy and aristocracy, provincial partic- 
ularism and centralized state unity. 

The old provincial laws of Sweden are a great and im- 
portant inheritance which this period has accumulated from 
heathen times. The laws were written down in the thir- 
teenth and fourteenth centuries, but they bear every evi- 
dence of high antiquity. Many strophes are found in them 
of the same metre as those on the tombstones of the Viking 
Age and those in which the songs of the Edda are chiefly 
written. In other instances the text consists of alliterative 
prose, which proves its earlier metrical form. The expres- 
sions have, in places, remained heathen, although used by 
Christians, who were ignorant of their true meaning, as, for 
instance, in the following formula of an oath, in the West 
Gothic law: "Sva se mer gud hull" (So help me the gods). 
The laws show a good many individual traits and differ- 
ences, but these are not of such a serious character as to 
give evidence of having been formulated by tribes of differ- 
ent origin. A remarkable exception is formed by the laws 
of matrimony and inheritance for the inhabitants of Veerend 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 67 

and Bleking, who, it will be remembered, are the descend- 
ants of the Herulian immigration in historic times. In lieu 
of a missing literature of sagas and poetry, these provincial 
laws give a good insight into the character, morals, customs 
and culture of the heathen and early Christian times of 
Sweden. From the point of philology they are also of great 
value, besides forming the solid basis of later Swedish law. 
How the laws could pass from one generation to another, 
without any codification, depends upon the facts that they 
were recited from memory by the justice (lagman or do- 
mare), and that this dignity generally was inherited, for 
centuries being carried by the descendants of one and the 
same family. 

Interesting is the appendix to the law of the island of 
Gothland, the Guta Saga, being the fragment of a history 
of the island and its first contact with Christianity through 
a visit by St. 01 af of Norway. The style is the same simple 
and serene one as in the Icelandic sagas ; while the Gutnic 
dialect, in which it is written, more closely resembles the 
Gothic of Bishop Wulfila in vowel sounds than the language 
of any other known dialect. Quite an important appendix 
is found in the older form of the West Gothic law, consist- 
ing of lines of the kings of Sweden, with short but highly 
valuable accounts of their reigns and characteristics. 

Btenkil was the name of King Emund's successor. He 
was a jarl and married to Emund's sister. The statement 
that he was born in West Gothland is not confirmed by the 
authorities. His father's name was Ragnvald, and it seems 
likely that this Ragnvald was identical with the jarl spoken 
of above, who died in Russia. Stenkil had close relations 
with Russia, for his son Inge was called in from that coun- 
try to succeed his father. If Jarl Ragnvald was StenkiPs 



68 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

father, this only made his selection as king more plausible, 
being then the half-brother of Isiaslaf of Russia and the 
brother-in-law of the reigning kings of Hungary, France 
and Norway. King Stenkil was a devout Christian, but 
of a sagacious disposition, careful not to offend his heathen 
subjects by any Christian propaganda. He was a giant in 
size, and although phlegmatic, an ardent sportsman. Adal- 
vard, exiled by Emund, returned and did active work as 
bishop of Skara, also converting the population of Verm- 
land. Even among the heathen of Svealand, Christianity 
got a foothold, Adalvard the Younger being established as 
bishop in Sigtuna, close by the pagan centre of Upsala. 
But when he, in conjunction with Egino, of the newly erected 
bishop's chair of Lund, schemed for the destruction of the 
heathen temple of Upsala, he was removed by the command 
of the king, who found that such a plan, if carried through, 
would prove disastrous to both Church and throne. 

During the short reign of Stenkil there was a conflict 
with Norway, an exiled Norwegian jarl having been granted 
possessions in Vermland. King Harald Hardrade invaded 
Gothaland, punishing this insult by a victory over the 
Swedes. No further complications ensued, perhaps on 
account of the close family relations of the two rulers. 

Stenkil died in 1066, leaving two sons, Halsten and 
Inge, both minors. During their minority two men, both 
named Eric, relatives of Stenkil and the old royal line, 
fought for supremacy, and both fell in the contest for the 
crown. Hakon of West Gothland took hold of the reins of 
state and kept them for thirteen years, until King Halsten 
became of age, Hakon himself dying. Halsten was a de- 
vout Christian like his father, but less sagacious, trying 
to force the new faith upon the heathen of Svealand. For 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 69 

this reason he was dethroned, and his brother Inge called 
in from Russia. Bat King Inge was a Christian enthusiast 
like his brother, and was subsequently driven away by the 
irate inhabitants of Svealand, who now called to the throne 
his brother-in-law Sven, surnamed Blot-Sven (Sven, the 
Sacrificer), of heathen faith. The royal brothers dwelt 
undisturbed among the Christians, but after three years 
King Inge, in old heathen style, surrounded and set fire 
to the domicile of Blot-Sven, who with all his household 
perished within. King Inge resumed his reign, likely very 
much in his old spirit, for two other pretenders, although 
less formidable, appeared: Olof Nceskonung (Nose-king) 
and a son of Sven, called Kol or Eric Arscell. Two papal 
documents are preserved from Inge's reign. They consist 
of letters from Gregory VII., making appeals for closer 
relations between the pope and the Swedish king. 

An invasion was made from Norway, whose king, Mag- 
nus Barfod, subdued the inhabitants of the province of 
Dal. King Magnus built a fortified place on the isl- 
and of Kollandsce in Lake Yenar, close to the shore of 
West Gothland, but it was captured by King Inge, who 
set its occupants free, but without their weapons. Two bat- 
tles were fought at Fuxerna, the Norwegians being victors 
in the first, the Swedes in the latter. Peace was effected 
at a meeting between the two kings at Kunghaell in the 
summer of 1101, when it was agreed that the frontiers 
should remain as they were before the war. King Eric 
Ejegod was also present at the meeting, where the betrothal 
between King Magnus and King Inge's daughter Margaret 
was agreed upon. On account of the original nature of the 
meeting the Swedish princess was surnamed Fredkulla 
(Peace- Maiden). 



70 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

In 1103 the bishopric of Lund was raised to the dignity 
of an archbishopric, yet not becoming perfectly independent 
of the archbishopric of Hamburg-Bremen. The archbishop 
of Lund received the title of Primas of Sweden, preserved 
long after Sweden had obtained its own archbishop. 

King Inge died in 1111, receiving, by the appendix to 
the West Gothic law, credit for " having ruled Sweden with 
manliness, without breaking the law which governed each 
province." About his brother Halsten, who died before 
him, the same source says: "He was sagacious and good- 
natured; the cases brought before him were bettered, and 
Sweden became worse through his death." At the time of 
Inge's death, Jemtland was persuaded to pay scat to the 
Norwegian king, but it remained in connection with the 
church of Sweden. 

Inge's son Ragnvald died before him, and Halsten's 
sons, Philip and Inge the Younger, ascended the throne. 
They were of a more peaceful disposition toward the heathen 
than their predecessors, Christianity making great progress 
during their reigns. Philip died in 1118, Inge following him 
in 1125; his death was said to have been caused by poison. 
The epitaph over the two runs thus: "Sweden fared well 
while they lived, ' ' in the terse language of the source quoted 
above. "With them the race of Stenkil became extinct in the 
male line. 

In 1123 the Norwegian king, Sigurd Jorsalafare, under- 
took a crusade to the eastern parts of Smaland, which were 
still heathen. "Crusades" of this kind were not uncommon 
during that period, and were hardly anything else than 
Viking expeditions in Christian disguise. 

Great confusion ensued through the extinction of Sten- 
kil's line. Ragnvald Knaphoefde, probably the son of Olof 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 71 

Nseskonung, was chosen king, but lost his life through the 
contemptuous neglect of an ancient custom. The newly 
elected king should always make a tour of the realm, re- 
ceiving homage and giving assurance of his good faith to 
the population of the various provinces. The provincial 
laws had stipulations as to the nature and number of the 
gisslan (hostages) to meet and escort him through each 
province. This tour, called Eriksgata, Ragnvald under- 
took without accepting hostages upon entering West Goth- 
land. He was killed at Karleby, in 1130, by the peasants, 
indignant at what they considered an insult to all the West 
Goths. These had, moreover, made another choice in Mag- 
nus Nilsson, the son of Margaret Fredkulla in her second 
marriage. Magnus never made claim to the Swedish throne, 
endeavoring to become king of Denmark, after his father, 
Nils Svendsen, but losing his life in the attempt. 

Sverker, who had married the widow of the younger 
Inge, was in 1133 chosen king by the East Goths, and the 
Up-Swedes (in the provinces north of Lake Mseiar), having 
no special choice of their own, also agreed on him. After 
the death of Magnus Nilsson, the West Goths joined by 
formally acknowledging King Sverker, who, born in East 
Gothland, has been supposed to be the son of Eric Arssell, 
without solid reasons. During Sverker 's reign ecclesiastical 
matters developed. The old bishoprics of Birka and Sigtuna 
were changed into that of (Old) Upsala, where the pagan 
temple seems to have been at last changed into a church. 
New bishoprics were created in Linkceping, Strengnses, 
Westeros and Vexio. The whole of Swedish Finland 
formed one diocese. The famous Bernard of Clairvaux 
was asked by King Sverker and his queen Ulf hild to send 
monks of his order, and several Cistercian convents were 



78 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

founded. The quiet and scholarly monks from France, no 
doubt, soon began to exert a beneficial influence of impor- 
tance, through the means of their superior culture. A papal 
legate, Nicolaus of Alba (later Pope Hadrian IV.), visited 
Sweden in 1152, meeting all the dignitaries of Church and 
State for a conference at Linkceping. The legate was will- 
ing to give to Sweden an archbishop, but the matter was 
postponed, since no agreement could be reached in regard 
to the archbishopric's seat. Measures for the establishment 
of the Church on a firmer basis and the payment of Peter's 
pence to Rome were agreed on. 

Sverker was a good and peaceful monarch, but seems 
with old age to have lost some of his authority. A war 
with Denmark was brought on through an escapade of his 
son John, who had carried away two Danish women of 
noble birth. He returned them, and was himself killed 
by the peasants at a Thing. Yet the Danish king, Svend 
Grade, had the excuse for an invasion and entered Smaland 
with an army in the winter of 1153-54. The brave inhabi- 
tants of Vserend gave him a hearty welcome, and he soon 
returned to Denmark. It is an old tradition that a woman 
by the name of Blenda was chiefly instrumental in this 
result. When the peasants feared to attack the superior 
enemy, she had a splendid meal spread for the foe. After 
the Danes had partaken heavily of its eatables and drink- 
ables, they were surprised and routed by their hitherto 
invisible hosts and hostesses. 

King Sverker, now called "the Old," was murdered by 
his valet while starting for the Christmas matins in 1155 
or 1156. The murder was, without doubt, committed at 
the instigation of the Danish prince Magnus Henricsson, 
who on his mother's side was a great-grandson of Inge the 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 73 

Elder, and who in this manner made his first attempt to 
reach the throne of Sweden. 

Already, in 1150, the Up-Swedes had in Eric, the son of 
Jedvard, found a man in their opinion better suited to rule 
Sweden than Sverker the Old. His mother is said to haye 
been the daughter of Blot-Sven and the sister of Kol, while 
his father was "a good and rich yeoman. " Through a mis- 
take he was named Eric ZX., but is more commonly known 
as St. Eric. One source calls him "lawgiver," although 
nothing is definitely known of his activity in this direction. 
At the death of Sverker, his son Charles was certainly of 
age, but the growing fame of King Eric made it useless for 
him to force his right, and Eric was recognized as king 
of the whole realm. 

King Eric was a warm friend of the Christian propa- 
ganda in his own country, and by crusades spread the faith 
outside of its borders. It was only natural that Sweden 
should turn its attention to Finland, with which country it 
had stood in close relations since the remotest period, and 
where Swedish settlements in all times existed. Accom- 
panied by Bishop Henric of Upsala, King Eric sailed with 
a fleet to the southwestern part of Finland, or the province 
now called Finland Proper, where the inhabitants were 
forced to receive baptism. This crusade must have taken 
place late in the fifties of the twelfth century. Eric soon 
returned, but Bishop Henric remained with other priests to 
have Christianity firmly established. These efforts met 
with considerable difficulty, and Henric was murdered by 
one of his converts. He was later worshipped as the patron 
saint of Finland. 

The pious King Eric was attacked by the perfidious 

prince Magnus Henricsson at East Aros (the present or 

xx 4 



74 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

New Upsala), in 1160. It is said that Erie was attending 
mass at the Trinity Church, when he was told of the ap- 
proach of his enemy. He remained till the service was over, 
after which he went to meet his fate. He was overcome 
and slain by the superior force. His pious life and virtues 
and the miracles which were said to have been worked at 
his grave made him the patron saint of Sweden, although 
never canonized by the Church of Rome. His bones are 
preserved in a shrine of gilt silver behind the high altar in 
the cathedral of Upsala, and were in Catholic days objects 
of worship. Oaths were taken "by the power of God and 
Saint Eric the King," his banner was carried in war, and 
the city of Stockholm still has his image on its shield. 

Charles Sverkersson (Charles VII.) now made valid 
his claims, the whole people rising to support him against 
the usurper Magnus. In the following year Magnus was 
killed by the indignant people. During the reign of Charles 
some important novelties in Church and State were intro- 
duced. Sweden received, in 1164, her first archbishop in 
Stefan, a monk of Alvastra. The archbishop's seat was 
first Old Upsala. Instead of jarls in the various parts, 
there is from this time on a jarl for the whole kingdom 
at the side of the king, whom he assists in the government 
of the state, sometimes obtaining a power rivalling that of 
his master. The first jarl of the realm was Ulf, the second 
Gutorm. The rivalry noticeable between the different prov- 
inces, which all thought themselves called upon to select 
a new line to rule after StenkiPs, ceased at the death of 
Saint Eric. What follows is a rivalry of interchanging 
dynasties. Charles Sverkersson was, in April, 1167, sur- 
prised by a pretender to the throne, Knut Ericsson, who 
deprived him of crown and life, while his little son Sverker 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 75 

was saved and carried away to the queen's uncle, Valdemar 
the Great of Denmark. 

Knut Ericsson was the son of Saint Eric, and ruled 
Sweden for twenty-five years in peace. In his youth he 
had made one unsuccessful attempt to reach the throne, 
after which he fled to Norway. After the death of King 
Charles he had to fight two pretenders, Kol and Burislev, 
the latter said to have been a son of King Sverker. 

During this period the Baltic and its coasts were con- 
tinually disturbed by heathen sea-rovers from the southern 
shores. A fleet of this kind entered Lake Meelar in 1187 
and destroyed by fire the town of Sigtuna, which, as a 
mercantile centre, had succeeded the earlier destroyed 
Birka. The second archbishop of Sweden, John, was 
killed by the invaders. The first preliminary plan for the 
fortification of the present site of Stockholm was probably 
then laid, in order to prevent further invasions, and a little 
town commenced to grow up. 

Conditions in Finland were not satisfactory. Invasions 
by Esthonians and Vends were frequent, while the Finns 
themselves were troublesome and little devoted to the new 
faith. Bishop Henric's successor was killed, but Sweden 
continued to send bishops during the next hundred years. 

The relations with foreign powers were peaceable, the 
first known treaty between Sweden and a German prince 
being entered into by King Knut and Duke Heinrich of Sax- 
ony and Bavaria, in regard to trade relations with Lubeck. 
King Knut died in the winter of 1195. He had four sons, 
but although he had selected one of them for his successor, 
"with general consent and through election by the foremost 
men in Sweden," Sverker the Younger, the son of King 
Charles, succeeded him. That this could take place with* 



76 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

out serious objection of Knut's sons can only be explained 
by the influence wielded by the Church and the nobles. 
The latter had already grown up to strength and impor- 
tance. Their leader was the mighty jarl, Birger Brosa, who 
had succeeded Gutorm. He was of the influential family 
of Folkungs, which, one of the first in the land, soon as- 
pired to the throne. Birger, himself married to a Norwe- 
gian princess, gave his own daughter Ingegerd in marriage 
to the new king, and remained in power. 

King Sverker sought the favor of the Church by sup- 
porting its claims. In a document of the year 1200, by 
which he donates some property to the church of Upsala, 
historians have seen the privileges extended to the Church 
as an independent power of state, whose members could 
be arraigned before an ecclesiastic forum only, and whose 
property was to be exempt from taxation. This is the 
spirit of the document; but the king had not, at that pe- 
riod, the right to grant such extensive privileges. King 
Sverker, and probably each of his successors, in turn, gave 
only an assurance of their sympathy with the Church policy, 
which was to its full extent an assured victory only toward 
the close of the thirteenth century. 

In 1202, Birger Brosa died, and with him the firm sup- 
port against the pretenders had fallen. The sons of Knut 
now made open revolt, leaving their places at Sverker's 
court. In 1205, Sverker gave battle to them at Elgaros, 
three of the brothers being killed and the fourth, Eric, 
fleeing to Norway. But a few years later he returned 
with an army, and Sverker found it safest to retire to 
Denmark, whence he returned with a splendid army, which 
King Valdemar II. Seier, had placed at his disposal. But 
this army was defeated at Lena, in West Gothland, in 1208, 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 77 

and Sverker returned to Denmark, now turning to the pope, 
Innocent III., who in vain threatened the pretender with 
his ban. Sverker entered Sweden with a new Danish army, 
but was killed at the battle of Gestilren, in West Gothland, 
in 1210. 

Eric Knutsson now came to undisturbed possession of 
the throne and thus remained until his death in April, 1216, 
his reign being short and uneventful. He was the first 
king of Sweden of whom it is known with certainty that 
he was anointed and crowned, thus placing himself under 
the protection of the Church. His queen, Kikissa, a sister 
of Yaldemar II., returned to Denmark after his death, 
there giving life to a son, who was named Eric, after his 
father. King Valdemar tried in vain to have this royal 
babe placed on the Swedish throne. 

John Sverkersson succeeded King Eric, being, on ac- 
count of his fifteen years of age, first surnamed the Young, 
later the Pious. By confirming and extending the rights 
of the Church which his father granted he won the favor 
of the ecclesiastics, and the attempts made by Yaldemar to 
have his consecration prohibited proved futile. Toward 
the end of his short reign (in 1220) King John undertook 
a crusade to Esthonia, where he left behind him his jarl, 
Charles, a brother of Birger Brosa, and Bishop Charles of 
Linkoeping, with a part of the army. These all perished 
in an onslaught made on them by the heathen in August 
of the same year, and the ravages by Esthonians continued 
as before. King John died in the island of Visingsce, in 
Lake Vetter, in 1222, like several of his predecessors, and 
was, like them, buried in the monastery of Alvastra. 

Eric Ericsson now became king of Sweden. The royal 
babe was then six years of age, a halting and lisping little 



78 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

creature. The Church took him under its protection, but 
there was no powerful man to take hold of the government 
during his minority. A pretender rose in the person of 
Knut the Tall, a great grandson of St. Eric, like the king 
himself. He defeated Eric's troops at Olustra, in 1229. 
Eric fled to Denmark, where he remained until the short 
and restless reign of Knut came to an end through his 
death, in 1232. Eric resumed the reins of government, 
with the Folkung, Jarl Ulf, at the helm. 

Pope Gregory IX., in 1230, gave commandment to the 
Swedish bishops to rouse the people to opposition against the 
ravages of the heathen in the Baltic provinces in the further 
parts of Finland. In 1237 he commands the Swedish bish- 
ops to have a crusade started against the heathen Tavasti 
in the interior of Finland. This crusade took place under 
the leadership of Birger Magnusson, who converted the 
barbarous Finns by the sword and erected a fort on the 
site of the later Tavastehus. Birger, according to Rus- 
sian testimony, tried to extend the dominion of Swedish 
supremacy as far as to the river Neva, but was repulsed 
by the Russians. 

Peace had reigned in Sweden for some time when new 
conflicts ensued. The peasants of Upland made an uprising 
in 1247, but were conquered at Sparrssetra and punished by 
heavier taxes. A pretender rose in the person of Holmger, 
the son of Knut the Tall. He was captured and beheaded 
in 1248. 

A papal legate, Bishop William of Sabina, visited Sweden 
and arranged, in 1248, an ecclesiastical meeting at Sken- 
ninge, effecting the final separation of Church and State, 
and establishing the former as an independent power at the 
side of the latter. Archbishops and bishops were now to be 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 79 

elected by the ecclesiastics and not by the king. Celibacy, 
previously not enforced in the Swedish church, was then 
introduced, meeting with a good deal of opposition ; for the 
ecclesiastical offices had already commenced getting heredi- 
tary, as had in earlier times the combined dignities of Asa 
priest and chieftain. Birger Magnusson had, shortly before 
the meeting of Skenninge, succeeded Ulf as jarl of the 
realm. This converter of the Tavasti was destined to play 
a most important part in Swedish history, shaping its des- 
tiny through the power of his iron will. He was the leader 
of the Folkung family and party, a nephew of Birger 
Brosa, and married to princess Ingeborg, a sister of the 
reigning king. Birger Jarl, as he is generally called, 
effected a satisfactory agreement with Norway at a meet- 
ing with Hakon in the summer of 1249, according to which 
the enemies of one realm should have no refuge, or support, 
in the other. Besides, it was agreed that the son of the 
Norwegian king should marry Rikissa, the daughter of 
Birger Jarl. 

King Eric died in 1250, at the age of thirty-four. He 
called himself Eric III., while in later times, when St. Eric 
was supposed to have been the ninth king of that name, 
he has been called Eric XI. He was said to have been 
peaceful, just and kind. 



CHAPTER V 
The Mediaeval *State — The Folkung Dynasty 

WITH Eric Ericsson the royal line of Saint Eric 
became extinct. The crown was, on account 
of his birthright, offered to Valdemar, the old- 
est son of Birger JarL He was crowned in Linkoeping 
in 1251. From this period on, a new historic source is 
found in the rhymed chronicles, of which Swedish litera- 
ture possesses several elaborate ones of more than 22,000 
verses in all. Of these the Old, or Eric's, Chronicle, was 
written about 1320, and, like all the rest, anonymously. 
The verses are fine, the language pure and powerful; the 
portraits of historical personages are roughly drawn but 
interesting. Unfortunately these rhymed chronicles in 
general, and the Eric's Chronicle in particular, dwell rather 
on the description of impressive events of pomp and splen- 
dor than on historical facts; and the facts given are not 
always reliable. The Eric's Chronicle gives a brief review 
of events during the reigns of Eric and Valdemar; then for 
the events up to 1319 more fully. 

According to the Eric's Chronicle, Birger Jarl wished 
to succeed Eric, but had to step aside for his son, who was 

of royal descent through his mother, King Eric's sister. 
(80) 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 81 

But Birger Jarl remained the all-powerful, although un- 
crowned, ruler till his death. 

Many of the nobles were not satisfied with the election 
of Valdemar. They joined forces, gathering hired troops 
from Denmark and Germany. Birger met them at Her- 
vadsbro and defeated them, capturing the leaders, who were 
beheaded. Among these were Philip, a son of Knut the 
Tall, and Knut Magnusson, with others of the Folkung 
family, which often was at war between themselves when 
great interests were at stake. 

After this battle peace reigned under the powerful and 
sagacious rule of Birger. An assault upon Denmark by 
King Hakon of Norway and Birger jointly was planned, but 
a peace agreement took its place, in 1253. In the further 
complications between Norway and Denmark, Birger took 
no part. When later King Christopher of Denmark called 
upon his northern neighbors for help against revolts in his 
own country, these were ready to respond; but at the sud- 
den death of King Christopher these plans were frustrated. 
In 1260 Birger bettered the already friendly relations with 
Denmark, by arranging the marriage between King Valde- 
mar and the Danish princess, Sophia, whereupon he, himself 
a widower, married Mechtild, a queen-dowager of Den- 
mark. In Finland, conditions were the same as of yore, 
pagan tribes and Russian invasions rendering everything 
unsafe and perilous. Birger renewed the trade agreement 
with Lubeck, in 1251, with added privileges to Lubeck, but 
with the stipulation that those of its citizens who settled 
m Sweden must become Swedish subjects. In 1261 the 
same privileges were extended to Hamburg. It was at this 
period that the Hanseatic League was formed between the 
commercial centres of North Germany. The relations be- 



82 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

tween the league and the Scandinavian countries waxed 
quite intimate and, at times, menacing to the political 
independence of the latter. But Sweden derived many 
benefits through the contact with the reviving culture of 
Southern Europe, which was brought about through the 
Hanseatic League; the newly opened mining industry and 
the prosperity of Swedish commercial centres particularly 
owing much to this influence. Stockholm became the larg- 
est and most important of Swedish towns during the days 
of Birger, although he was not its founder. Also with 
England, Birger was carrying on peaceful proceedings; yet 
their purpose is not known. In 1237, the king of England 
had granted the merchants of the island of Gothland free 
trade privileges. Birger was a great and sound legislator, 
although it is not known with certainty how many of the 
judicial reforms accredited to him originated in these days. 
He made the law that sister should have equal share 
of inheritance with brother, and the laws of sanctity of 
home, Church, Thing and woman, which formed the kernel 
of a set of laws, later called Edsoere (Pledged oath), which 
every crowned king and his foremost men must pledge 
themselves to uphold. He tried to make away with the 
ordeal of walking on, or the handling of, iron as a legal 
testimony of guiltlessness. Further, he prohibited the cus- 
tom of self-imposed thraldom. 

The only act of Birger's which has been condemned was 
his attempt to introduce feudalism. His second son, Mag- 
nus, was created a duke, and received, at Birger's death, 
Soedermanland, with the castle of Nykceping as a duchy. 
This gave rise to much strife and many conflicts within 
the new royal branch of the Folkungs, and endangered the 
unity of the kingdom. Birger, the last jarl of the realm, 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 83 

was the first real statesman of Sweden, whose stern intellect 
and integrity of character won for his country an honored 
position among its neighbors, and for himself the admiration 
of many generations to come. He died in 1266. 

The first few years after Birger's death were peaceful. 
The archbishop's seat was removed to the present Upsala, 
where work was commenced on the magnificent cathedral. 
In 1271 the commercial privileges held by Lubeck and 
Hamburg were also granted to Riga. 

Yaldemar was a weak and frivolous man, and his licen- 
tiousness gave his brother Magnus the idea of pushing him 
aside, and later deprived him of the loyalty and respect of 
his people. The difficulties with his brothers ended in open 
conflict; Magnus and his younger brother Eric turned to 
Denmark and Germany, where they hired an army, King 
Eric Glipping of Denmark helping them with troops on 
promise of good securities. The brothers invaded West 
Gothland and defeated a Swedish army at Hofva, in 1275, 
while the king with his best troops remained inactive at 
Tiveden. Valdemar fled to Norway, bringing his son Eric 
with him. Venturing back into Yermland, he was captured 
and brought before Duke Magnus. Yaldemar went so far 
as to abdicate his throne, but the meeting ended in an 
agreement according to which Magnus was to become 
king of Svealand and Yaldemar to keep Gothaland. Eric 
was made a duke, but died in the same year. Magnus 
was crowned at Upsala in 1276. 

King Yaldemar did not long remain content with the 
new state of things. One month after Magnus's coronation 
he arranged a meeting with him at Lcedcese, over which 
King Magnus Lagabcete of Norway presided, but without 
being able to effect an agreement between the brothers. 



84 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

Valdemar now turned to King Eric of Denmark, and won 
an ally in him because Magnus had neglected to fulfil his 
promises. Magnus gained a supporter in Duke Gerhard I. 
of Holstein, whose daughter Helvig he married in Novem- 
ber, 1276. 

With the year 1277 war commences between Sweden 
and Denmark. Magnus invades Halland and Scania, while 
Yaldemar, with a Danish army, enters Smaland, burning 
the town of Vexio. With King Eric, Yaldemar enters 
West Gothland, capturing Skara. At last the Danes are 
defeated at Ettak. Early in 1278 peace is made at Laholm, 
Magnus promising to pay his debt to Eric, leaving the castle 
of Lcedcese as security. Each promises not to shelter the 
rebels against the other. Valdemar lost his cause and had 
to give up Gothaland and his royal title, keeping only his 
inherited estates. On account of his scandalous living, the 
nobles insisted upon his imprisonment, and ten years after 
his abdication he was placed in custody at the castle of 
~Ny keeping. He survived all his brothers, dying in 1302. 
His son Eric was imprisoned at the castle of Stockholm, 
receiving good treatment like his father. When his cousin 
Birger was crowned, in 1302, he was set free, spending the 
rest of his life in Sweden as a private citizen. During 
Magnus Ericsson's minority he was a member of the king's 
council. When Magnus was sole occupant of the throne 
he took the title of "King of the Swedes and Goths," 
which, occasionally used before, henceforward became the 
customary one. 

A revolt against King Magnus took place shortly after 
the meeting at Laholm. Some of the nobles were dissatis- 
fied with the favoritism shown foreigners, a complaint which 
was only too often justifiable, and forever repeated, in the 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 85 

course of centuries, against the Swedish monarchs. Count 
Gerhard of Holstein was imprisoned, and the Danish 
knight, Ingemar, killed. The king invited the rebels to 
him at Gaellqvist, where he in an unexpected way made 
them prisoners, and had them beheaded, in August, 1280, 
confiscating their property. This incident is characteristic 
of the time, but there is no other authority for it than the 
Chronicle, The reign of Magnus was comparatively short, 
but a happy and glorious one. The relations with the island 
of Gothland were made closer and more intimate, although 
the proud independence of its inhabitants remained largely 
intact. They were to pay increased scat, but continued 
their government without royal officials. The Guts were 
of Swedish origin, and their island formed since the ninth 
century a part of Sweden, but their isolated position and 
great commercial activity made them almost independent. 
About the year 1000 they seek for themselves protection 
from the Swedish king, and after their baptism they turn 
to the bishop of Linkceping for spiritual guidance. Thanks 
to its position, halfway between Germany, Russia and Swe- 
den, Gothland gives rise to the most important commercial 
centre of Northern Europe after Lubeck. The inhabitants 
of Visby were Germans, to a great extent, and their con- 
flicts with the rural population were frequent. King Mag- 
nus appears as an arbitrator in such cases with an authority 
great enough to impose his conditions. In spite of the 
inimical relations between Denmark and Norway, Magnus 
held peace with both. 

As a legislator Magnus was even more important than 
his father, shaping and reshaping laws which furthered the 
development of the country and wielding an influence upon 
its jurisdiction reaching down to the present day. At a 



8G HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

meeting of nobles at Alnsnoe, in 1280, King Magnus gave 
solemn pledge to the so-called Edsoere-laws of his father, 
and' made the nobility into a privileged class. All the men 
surrounding him and his brother Bengt (made duke of 
Finland), and on their estates, together with the trusted 
men in the service of a bishop, were freed from paying taxes 
to the king. The same privilege was extended "to all men 
who served with a horse, whosoever they serve." The ex- 
emption from taxes did not include those due the church 
or community, but only those due the king. The horse ser- 
vice (ro<ss=later rusttjenst) meant to provide for a cavalry 
force of iron-clad men for military service, according to the 
demands of the time. The nobles saw to it that this privi- 
lege was made permanent even after they had discontinued 
the horse service, and that others were added to it. A law 
prohibiting voldgcestning y the custom of travellers of taking 
by violence, or without compensation, food and comfort from 
the rural population, was also made a£ Alnsnoe, and won for 
King Magnus the rustic but beautiful surname of Ladulas 
(Barn-lock). "For he wished to place such locks on the 
peasant's barn, that no one should dare enter but at the 
will of the owner," wrote Olaus Petri, the historian and 
reformer. An official was placed in every country town to 
see to the traveller's comfort, and to his payment for it. At 
a meeting in Skenninge, in 1285, a law about konungafrid 
(royal sanctity) was made in order to prevent strife among 
the nobles and to make away with the ancient evil of re- 
venge for bloodshed. This period of royal sanctity, when 
between men of the most strained relations peace should 
reign, commenced a fortnight after the king's arrival had 
been announced at the Thing and lasted until he had by 
letter informed it of his departure out of the province. The 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 8? 

one who abused this sanctity, or only carried weapons, was 
exiled and his property confiscated. Secret societies among 
the nobles were prohibited. 

Magnus was not only a great legislator, but saw to it 
that his laws were not broken. Personally he loved splen- 
dor and dignity, another trait through which he won the 
favor of the Swedes, who in all times have been fond of 
seeing their highest representatives surround themselves 
with impressive luxury and wealth. Magnus was in this 
respect the first mediaeval monarch of Sweden, who kept 
a brilliant court, but at the same time was the pious and 
obedient son of the Church. He augmented the ecclesias- 
tical privileges and founded several convents. In one of 
these, St. Clara of Stockholm, he installed his daughter 
Rikissa. Upon his death, which deplorable event took place 
in the island of Visingsoe, December 18, 1290, he was buried 
in the Franciscan convent church (the Riddarholm's) in 
Stockholm, according to his own wish. He was the first 
monarch to be entombed in this the present Pantheon 
of Sweden. Three sons survived him, Birger, Eric and 
Valdemar. 

During the reign of Magnus, the development of med- 
iaeval institutions took rapid strides. This is noticeable 
also in the offices of those who surround the king. In 
the place of the jarl have been set two new dignitaries the 
drotsete and marsh, of the king, "the seater of the retinue" 
and "marechal" or "servant of the horse," respectively. 
Circumstances heightened the importance of these offices 
and changed them from court into state positions, the presi- 
dent of the state council and the commander of the army. 
The kansler (chancellor), often a bishop, is another impor- 
tant royal office. The king's council, consisting of bishops, 



88 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

knights and men of social standing, surrounds the monarch 
at his command and according to his selection, the arch- 
bishop being the only ex- officio member. Important affairs 
of State and Church are decided on at the meetings of nobles, 
herredagar, no one taking part who is not asked, or not 
agreeable to the king. These meetings later developed into 
riksdagar, at which all classes of the people were repre- 
sented. Taxes were collected for the king by bailiffs, who 
in compensation received fiefs, sometimes consisting only of 
certain estates, in other instances as much as a whole prov- 
ince or district. The right of taxation belonged to the peo- 
ple. Only in extraordinary cases the king was allowed to 
impose additional taxes, although such were sometimes im- 
posed wrongfully, in spite of a law stipulated by King 
Magnus Barn-Lock. 

Birger succeeded his father Magnus. He was only ten 
years of age, but his father had placed by his side a man 
who was to reign during his minority. Marsk Tyrgils 
Knutsson was the second of the great uncrowned rulers 
of whom Sweden was destined to receive a number almost 
as large as that of illustrious monarchs. Tyrgils Knutsson 
followed out the policy of peace and progress which Birger 
Jarl had commenced and King Magnus continued, making 
in all the happiest era of the Middle Ages. To Birger JarPs 
conquest of Tavastland in Finland, Tyrgils added that of 
Carelia. Two expeditions were sent to Carelia, in 1293 and 
1299, whose savage inhabitants were converted and made 
Swedish subjects. Viborg was built and formed a strong- 
hold for further operations, while Landskrona, another for- 
tified place, erected by Tyrgils, not far from the site of 
the present St. Petersburg, was soon lost to the Russians, 
Through the conquest of Carelia, better times commenced 



HISTORY OP SWEDEN 89 

for the Church of Finland, whose bishopric, in 1300, was 
moved to Abo. 

The legislative work of his great predecessors was con- 
tinued by Tyrgils, who made possible the union of the vari- 
ous "lands" of Upland into one judicial district. The first 
justice was Birger Persson, who was at the head of the 
work of preparing a common law for the whole province 
(in 1296). Neutrality was preserved during the conflicts 
between Norway and Denmark. King Eric Menved of 
Denmark was, in 129(5, married to King Birger 's sister, 
the pious Princess Ingeborg. In 1298 Birger was married 
to Eric's sister Margaret in Stockholm, over the lavish 
splendor of which event the poet of the Chronicle goes 
into ecstasies of delight and felicitous description. Both 
these unions were prearranged by King Magnus, and the 
princess Margaret had been educated in Sweden for the 
purpose of becoming its queen. 

The king was now of age, but Marsk Tyrgils continued 
for several years at the helm. His relations to the Church 
show what a wise and vigorous statesman he was. When 
in the name of the king the privileges to the Church were 
once more granted, as by his predecessor, Tyrgils made the 
important exceptions that the Church should fulfil for its 
possessions the same military duty as all others in the coun- 
try, and that certain large fines should be reserved for the 
king. The ecclesiastics took quietly to these restrictions at 
first, but soon an open conflict ensued. Another and greater 
one arose between the king and his brothers, Eric, duke 
of Sweden, and Valdemar, duke of Finland. It resembles 
very much the conflict between their uncle Valdemar and 
his brothers. In both cases there was a weak and deceitful 
king who was inferior, if not in wretchedness, at least in 



90 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

courage, to one of the brothers. After the first conflict was 
ended, the dukes selected Marsk Tyrgils for their prey. In 
March, 1305, Tyrgils saw the king grant to the Church the 
important privileges held back until then. In December of 
the same year the king and his brothers came upon Tyrgils 
unprepared. He was imprisoned, and in a shameful man- 
ner dragged to Stockholm, travelling night and day through 
the cold of winter, probably by some fraudulent legal pro- 
cess found guilty of treason, and beheaded, February 10, 
1236. As a climax to this foul political murder, Tyrgils 
Knutsson was buried on the place of execution. Later, his 
body was removed to the church of Riddarholm and placed 
at the side of King Magnus, whose son he had served so 
faithfully. 

The conflict between the royal brothers burst into flame 
again, revealing some of the darkest and most shocking 
scenes of deceit, treachery and villany found in Swedish 
history. The strife commenced in April, 1304, for the first 
time, and continued, with few and short intermissions, 
until the autumn of 1318, with broken oaths and pledges, 
which were renewed and broken again, alliances and royal 
betrothals formed, ended and renewed, kingdoms and 
duchies divided and redivided, endless intrigues, rebellion 
and mutual invasions. The kings of Norway and Den- 
mark, with their armies, and several German princes and 
hired troops, became actors in this bloody tragedy, which 
ended in the annihilation of the principals. The most 
dramatic incidents are known as "the Play at Hotuna" 
and "the Feast of Ny keeping," both taking place during 
the short intervals of peace. The former was enacted 
September 29, 1306, when the king invited his brothers' 
to him at Hotuna in Upland. They accepted the in vita 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 91 

tion, only to carry the king and queen &^\ay as captives, 
forcing the former to give over to them his kingdom and 
his power, only leaving him the royal title. "The Feast 
at Nykoeping" was held the night between December 10 
and 11, 1317. The king and queen invited the dukes to 
the castle, seized them in the night and threw them into 
a dungeon, where they both perished after six months of 
hunger and neglect. Birger did not derive any benefit from 
his fearful crime. The whole country rose against him and 
he died, after several years of exile, in 1321. Birger has 
generally been held forth as the responsible party in the 
crimes and evils of the conflict, but his brothers seem to 
have been guilty in about the same degree. Duke Eric 
was one of the most brilliantly gifted princes of his age, 
and jealousy on the part of the king was the spark that 
kindled the fire. But the bad example set by their father 
of depriving an older brother of his throne, and the great 
possessions and independence of the dukes, were the un- 
derlying causes. The destruction of both the contending 
parties was an unexpected solution and a great gain for 
Sweden, whose fate appeared sinister, with the prospect 
of dismemberment or dissolution, the dukes holding their 
vast possessions as heirlooms. 

During the conflict Norway had sided with the dukes, 
Denmark with the king. Duke Eric was married to Inge- 
borg, only child of King Hakon of Norway, and Duke 
Valdemar to his niece of the same name. Mattias Kettil- 
mundsson was, in June, 1318, elected drotsete and regent. 
He led an army against Denmark in the interests of the 
duchesses, invading Scania and defeating the Danes near 
Hessleholm. November 11th of the same year peace was 
made in Rceskilde between the kings, Eric and Birger, on 



92 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

one side, and King Hakon and the heirs of the dukes, 

on the other. May 8, 1319, King Hakon died, and Magnus 
Ericsson^ the young son of Duke Eric, inherited the crown 
of Norway, and July 8th of the same year he was elected 
king of Sweden at Mora in Upland. 

For the attainment of this end Magpus's mother, Duch- 
ess Ingeborg, and seven Swedish councillors had worked 
with great activity. They had taken part in shaping the first 
Act of Union of the North in June, 1319, and from Oslo, 
in Norway, hastened to have Magnus elected at the Stone 
of Mora, where the Swedish kings since time immemorial 
were nominated. The Act of Union stipulated that the two 
kingdoms were to remain perfectly independent, the king 
to sojourn an equally long part of the year in each, with 
no official of either country to accompany him further than 
to the frontier. In their foreign relations the countries 
were to be independent, but to support each other in case 
of war. The king was the only tie to bind them together. 

There was another Magnus whose candidacy was spoiled 
by this union. He was the son of King Birger, already, as 
a child, chosen king of Sweden in succession to his father. 
Magnus Birgersson, a prisoner at Stockholm, was be- 
headed in 1320, to make safe the reign of his more fortu- 
nate cousin. King Magnus was only three years old, and 
Drotsete Mattias Kettilmundsson presided over the govern- 
ment during his minority, the nobles of the state council 
having great power and influence. Both in Sweden and 
Norway the nobility had by this time attained a supremacy 
which was oppressive both to the king and the people, not 
so much through their privileges as through the liberties 
they took. Their continual feuds between themselves dis- 
turbed the peace of the country. 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 93 

In 1332, King Magnus took charge of the government. 
He was a ruler of a benign and good disposition toward the 
common people, whose interests he always furthered. But 
he lacked strength of character and was not able to control 
the obnoxious nobles. The provinces of Scania and Bleking 
suffered greatly under Danish rule, which was changed into 
German oppression when handed over to the counts of Hol- 
stein as security for a loan. The people of Scania rose in 
revolt and asked for protection from King Magnus. At a 
meeting in Kalmar (in 1332) both provinces were united 
to Sweden. But the king had to pay heavy amounts in 
settlement, which were increased when Halland was pro- 
cured in a similar way. 

King Magnus was, at his height of power, one of the 
mightiest monarchs of Europe, having under his rule 
the entire Scandinavian peninsula and Finland, a realm 
stretching from the Sound at Elsinore to the Polar Sea, 
from the river Neva to Iceland and Greenland. In 1335 
King Magnus rode his "Eriksgata," when he announced 
that no Christian within his realm should remain a thrall, 
thus practically abolishing the remnants of slavery. In the 
following year he was crowned with his queen, Blanche 
of Namur. 

Magnus took great interest in legislation. During his 
minority the provincial laws were revised. The king him- 
self accomplished the great and noble task of having these 
united into a state law (landslag), appointing a committee 
of three justices to do the work. The clergy was consulted, 
but refused to have ecclesiastical laws made for the whole 
kingdom. The state law was first considered in 1347, and 
was put in practice in 1352, being both a digest and an 
elaboration of the ancient provincial laws. In many an in- 



94 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

stance of foreign or domestic conflicts, the people, through 
its enforcement, found help and shelter from the national 
spirit of this law. 

To the financial difficulties which beset the reign of King 
Magnus and made his life a burden the great plague was 
added. "The Black Death," in 1350, came from England 
to Norway and spread with great rapidity and the most 
disastrous consequences throughout the North. In certain 
parts of Sweden one-third of the population perished, in 
other parts even a greater percentage, the plague raging 
with equal violence throughout all classes of society. King 
Magnus had for a long time contemplated revenge against 
the invasions made by the Russians into Carelia. He under- 
took an expedition, under the pretext of a crusade, which 
ended badly, the Swedish fleet being shut in by the Rus- 
sians and saved only by means of digging a canal. The 
king was severely criticised for this crusade, which was con- 
strued as a punishment for his sins, and, besides, largely 
increased his debts. The pope was among his creditors, 
who, upon non-payment, placed Magnus under his ban. 

The union with Norway was not a happy one. As a 
minor, Magnus dwelt most of the time in Norway, but 
later principally in Sweden. This was contrary to the Act 
of Union, the state of things in Norway, furthermore, 
necessitating the almost continual presence of the king. 
For this reason his son, Hakon, was chosen king of Nor- 
way, in 1343, Magnus remaining in power until Hakon be- 
came of age, and his older son, Eric, chosen king, or heir- 
apparent, of Sweden, in 1344. It appears that King Magnus 
was in favor of this separation and had preconceived it in 
giving to his older son the Swedish name of Eric and to the 
younger the Norwegian name of Hakon, both equally char- 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 95 

aofceristic of the royal lines of the respective countries. The 
two young kings caused their father considerable annoy- 
ance; but, upon the early death of Eric, Hakon entered more 
into harmony with King Magnus. Valdemar Atterdag, the 
crafty and enterprising king of Denmark, took an active 
part in the conflicts, pretending to support Magnus, while 
simultaneously depriving him of Scania, Halland and Ble- 
king, which he captured almost without resistance. He 
landed in the island of Gothland, plundering Visby in a 
treacherous way. Upon his departure, his ships perished 
in a storm, the plundered treasures going down with these, 
the king himself escaping with difficulty. Valdemar ar- 
ranged a marriage between his little daughter Margaret and 
King Hakon of Norway. Several Swedish nobles of great 
influence considered the treachery and impudence of Valde- 
mar and the weakness of Magnus as going too far. They 
offered the Swedish crown to Albrecht, the son of King 
Magnus's sister Euphemia. The offer was accepted by 
Duke Albrecht of Mecklenburg, the father of the young 
Albrecht, in behalf of his son. He made a sudden assault 
upon Stockholm in 1363, capturing it. At the Stone of 
Mora, Albrecht the Younger was chosen king of Sweden. 
Magnus was defeated and made a prisoner at Enkoeping. 
King Magnus was taken to Stockholm and there impris- 
oned for some time, heavily laden with chains. King Val- 
demar deserted his cause, but the common people of Svea- 
land, with whom Magnus had always been exceedingly 
popular, rose in order to free him. Soon King Hakon 
reached the very gates of Stockholm with a Norwegian 
army, whereupon Magnus was released. But he had to 
abdicate his throne, leaving for Norway, where he died, 
through an accident^ in 1374. 



96 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

Albrecht was the rightful king of Sweden. At the 
death of Eric he became heir-apparent to the Swedish 
throne, but for having sped on the course of events in his 
own interest, neither he nor his father acquired any pop- 
ularity. They surrounded themselves by a great number 
of Germans, who, through their licentiousness and over- 
bearing manner, enraged the people. The country was 
practically in the hands of a few Swedish nobles, among 
whom the drotsete, Bo Jonsson Grip, through his high 
office and his immense wealth, bore the supremacy. Bo 
Jonsson is said to have been the wealthiest man who ever 
lived in the North, his possessions, fiefs and castles being 
of an astounding number, the most famous among the 
latter being Gripsholm in the Lake Maelar. He loaned 
money to the king against new castles and fiefs in secur- 
ity, and held Albrecht in the most humiliating relation of 
dependence. His enemies he persecuted without mercy, 
killing one before the high altar in the Franciscan church 
of Stockholm. When Bo Jonsson died, in 1386, the king 
tried to better conditions by confiscating to the crown some 
of his possessions. But he met with opposition from the 
nobles, who claimed that he did so only to enrich his Ger- 
man favorites. The king was helpless against his coun- 
cillors, to whom he had handed over all his power. They 
were in possession of all the fortified castles, and if one 
of them died, the king had no right to select a successor 
without their permission. The executors of Bo Jonsson 's 
will ended by offering the crown to Margaret, Valdemar's 
daughter, and queen-dowager of Norway. She accepted, 
promising the nobles that they should remain in undisturbed 
enjoyment of their great privileges. Margaret sent an army 
into West Gothland, consisting of men from all three of the 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 97 

Scandinavian countries, under the command of the Swede, 
Eric Kettilsson. King Albrecht met with an army to a 
great extent composed of German troops, and was defeated 
and made a prisoner at Falkceping, February 24, 1389. 
Albrecht was imprisoned at Lindholm, in Scania, for 
seven years, later returning to Mecklenburg. 

To the Foikung period belongs one of the most remark- 
able and renowned of Swedish women, herself, on her 
mother ? s side, a Foikung, St. Birgitia, the daughter of 
the legislator and first justice of Upland, Birger Persson. 
Her parents were both pious and devoted to ascetic prac- 
tices. As a child she had visions, the holy Mary appearing 
to her. When thirteen years of age she was married to Ulf 
Gumundsson, later justice of Kerike, also a pious man, with 
whom she made a pilgrimage to Spain. Birgitta lost her 
husband shortly afterward. At the Swedish court, where 
she was the highest functionary of Queen Blanche, she had 
seen political life at close range, gathering a deep and 
strong indignation against the mighty and powerful in 
the world. Her husband's death moved her deeply, and 
the religious mysticism of her youth now burst forth with 
increased strength, her visions becoming numerous and im- 
portant. That she believed in them herself there is no 
doubt, and she made the world believe her. At first she 
hurled admonitions and curses against King Magnus and 
his court; but the wretchedness of the whole world attracted 
her to its spiritual centre, Rome, where she lived for twenty- 
three years in continual and open protest against the vices 
of the popes and priests. She died in Rome, in 1373, at 
the age of seventy, after a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, seeing 
the two great ambitions of her life fulfilled: the pope re- 
turning to Rome from Avignon, and her creation, the order 

XX 5 



98 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

of St. Salvator, sanctioned by the pope. Birgitta was can- 
onized by the pope in 1391, through the influence of Queen 
Margaret. 

Birgitta was the greatest political-poetic genius of the 
mediaeval North. Her revelations fill eight volumes. She 
wrote them in Swedish, and had a priest translate them 
into Latin. Some of her original Swedish work is pre- 
served. Birgitta appears to have thought in artistic images, 
and these images are of plastic form, often of consummate 
beauty, sometimes witty, sometimes avowedly comic, always 
effective. The melancholy charm of Sweden's nature suf- 
fuses all her writings and renders to her peculiar mediaeval 
mysticism a national temperament. From Swedish scener- 
ies and animal life she borrows her most beautiful images. 

St. Birgitta has by some been considered as a reformer 
before Luther, but not quite correctly. Luther reformed the 
institutions; Birgitta aimed at reforming their upholders, 
and used against the pope and the priests a language almost 
as strong as Luther's. Some of her ideas were not strictly 
in harmony with the Catholic dogmas; she insisted on a 
close personal union with God, without the mediation of 
priests or saints, fought for a universal knowledge of the 
Bible and the preaching of the Gospel in the popular ver- 
naculars, and considered the sale of indulgences a mortal 
sin. Four hundred and seventy convents of her order, in 
which men and women were to collaborate for the instruc- 
tion and spiritual guidance of the people, were after her death 
founded in the Scandinavian countries, Germany, Esthonia, 
Poland, Italy and the Netherlands, one existing in England 
up to the time of Elizabeth. The mother institution at 
Vadstena, in East Gothland, was of the greatest impor- 
tance to the cultural development of Sweden and the North. 



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HISTORY OF SWEDEN 99 

One of the greatest libraries of the Middle Ages was reared, 
and the first book-printing establishment of Sweden founded 
there in 1490. Within its walls a considerable literary ac- 
tivity prevailed, the religious literature of the time being 
copied, or translated into Swedish, and many original works 
written. The Swedish language, used by the Birgittine 
school of writers, tried, by approaching Danish forms, to 
establish a common literary language in the North, the 
Norwegian having approached the Swedish during the 
time of the close relations between the courts of the two 
countries. These efforts, for a time furthered by political 
relations, were unfortunately soon to be abandoned forever. 
Birgitta was a great genius in fetters. Her rare gifts 
were kept back in their development through the idiosyn- 
crasies of her period. She was of an indomitable, aristo- 
cratic spirit, always remaining the noblewoman to whom 
it was natural to speak the truth to the princes of State and 
Church, because she considered herself their equal through 
the best blood of the North, of which she had her share. 
This religious mystic was a true child of her aristocratic 
age, which gave to Sweden two parallel lines, sometimes 
identical, of great legislators and. weak and indulgent 

princes. 

L, ti 



CHAPTER VI 

Unionism versus Patriotism — Margaret, Engelbrekt 
and Charles Knutsson 

QUEEN MARGARET, the successor of Albrecht, for 
the first time in history united the three Scandina- 
vian countries and their dependencies under one 
rule. Born in a prison in which King Valdemar of Den- 
mark had placed his consort, Queen Hedvig, there remained 
in the character of Margaret something of the rigor and 
chill of her uncomely birthplace. When she was seven, 
she was engaged to King Hakon of Norway, and married 
to him at eleven years of age. In Norway, her education 
was continued for several years after her marriage under 
the stern supervision of Dame Martha, a daughter of 
St. Birgitta, who often applied corporal punishment to the 
young queen. Margaret early gave evidence of self-control 
and power of reflection, and her mind developed at the ex- 
pense of her heart. Her son Olaf became king of Denmark 
upon Valdemar's death, in 1375, and king of Norway upon 
that of Hakon, in 1380. Upon his death, in 1387, Margaret 
succeeded him, and two years later laid Sweden under her 
sceptre. 

Albrecht was captured, but the Germans still were in 
possession of several Swedish strongholds. These yielded 

to Margaret, one after the other, except Stockholm. In the 
(100) 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 101 

capital, the German influx of soldiers and merchants had 
made the foreign population exceedingly large. They now 
acted as oppressors. A secret league was formed which 
captured a great number of prominent Swedish citizens, 
who were cruelly tortured with wooden saws and then 
thrown into an old shed on the islet of Ksepplingeholm. 
The shed was ignited and the poor prisoners suffered a 
terrible death. German freebooters, especially the Vitalen 
or Victuallen Brotherhood, who provided the fortress of 
Stockholm with victuals, were plundering in the Baltic 
and Lake Mselar, and were the allies of the Germans of 
Stockholm. Margaret was powerless against them until 
she entered into an alliance with the Hanseatic towns. 
This ended the war; Stockholm surrendered and peace 
was made, in 1395. The plunders by sea-rovers in the 
Baltic were put an end to during Margaret's reign, but 
cost heroic efforts and much money, while the influence 
of the Hansa grew into menacing proportions. 

Margaret was anxious to place the dynasty of the North 
firmly within her line of descent. In 1389, she selected her 
sister's grandson, Eric of Pomerania, then six years old, 
her successor, and he was thus proclaimed in Norway. In 
1395, Eric was chosen king of Denmark and, in 1396, of 
Sweden. At his Swedish coronation in Kalmar, in 1397, 
Queen Margaret, who remained at his side as the real ruler, 
had the outline drawn of an Act of Union, which should 
forever unite the three Scandinavian kingdoms under one 
ruler. Each country was to preserve its constitution, laws 
aod traditions unmolested, but they were to support each 
other in times of war. When a king was to be chosen, 
representatives of equal numbers from each country were 
to meet in Halmstad, the sons of kings to be favored by 



102 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

choice. This Act of Union was never carried into effect, 
according to legal forms. The sketch or outline of it, such 
as it is still preserved, was signed by representatives of the 
three countries, although not in equal numbers; but why 
Queen Margaret never allowed it to be enlarged into a 
legally binding document is not known. Her favorite 
idea was therein embodied, and she appeared to have an 
all-powerful influence over those necessary to carry it 
through. 

Margaret made it her object to strengthen the crown 
and reduce the power of the nobles. She cared naught 
about keeping her promises to the latter, confiscating their 
castles and possessions, and annulling their privileges. 
When they complained, reminding her of her promises in 
her letters to them, she replied: "Keep my letters; I shall 
certainly keep your castles." All nobles created by Al- 
brecht were entirely deprived of their privileges if they 
could not prove their due qualifications. The majority of 
forts erected during the war were pulled down. No taxes 
were longer imposed, except through written order of the 
government. These reforms were all rigorously carried 
out, according to the "Restitution of Nykoeping" of ]396. 
Margaret succeeded in a remarkable way in reducing to 
normal proportions the power and influence of the Swedish 
nobility. The nobles, who were all-powerful and abso- 
lutely unyielding in Albrecht's days, bowed to her grace- 
fully and received meekly her severe conditions. An 
explanation can be found in the fact that they had no leader 
of authority and power among them, after the death of 
Bo Jonsson Grip. Further, Margaret was careful not to 
fill the important offices of drotsete and marsk, when 
vacant, thus making the personal presence and inter- 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 103 

ference of the sovereign necessary on all important 
occasions. 

The love of the Swedish people should have been Mar- 
garet's reward for her abolition of aristocratic oppression, 
if she had not been in a position which necessitated the 
imposition of heavy taxes. The existence of the common 
people was made weary and troublesome through the pay- 
ment of the "queen's tax," the " stake tax" on each hearth, 
the "rump tax" on each head of cattle, and, worst of all, the 
"Gothland's release." Bailiffs, often of foreign birth, col- 
lected these taxes with great severity. When the queen be- 
came aware of the complaints against her and her bailiffs, 
she asked in a letter to the archbishop that the people would 
forgive her in God's name. "Some of it one has not been 
able to better; some we and they might well have bettered, 
although what is done is done." Without doubt, there was 
due reason for the heavy taxes in the unsettled relations 
with other countries which existed during Margaret's reign; 
the support of the Hansa and a war with Holstein, com- 
menced by King Eric, were expensive. The island of Goth- 
land had been captured by the so-called German Order in 
the last days of Albrecht's reign. When the island was re- 
deemed through the payment of Swedish money, Margaret 
made the mistake of installing there a Danish bailiff, and 
it thus for a long time remained a Danish province. Mar- 
garet believed in the Union and counted no Scandinavian 
a foreigner in either country. But it was contrary to Swed- 
ish law to install foreigners as bailiffs and vassals, and as 
she appointed a great number of Danes to Swedish fiefs, 
and never a Swede to Danish positions of the same or 
equal importance, the Swedish complaints, on this point, 
were justified. 



104 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

Margaret was as severe toward the ecelesiastics as 
toward the nobles. Bat when she noticed the forebodings 
of powerful resistance, she made important concessions. 
She was anxious to observe religious practices, joining the 
convent of Vadstena as a "worldly sister," kissing the hands 
of all the monks and nuns on that occasion. She took inter- 
est in the conversion of the Laps $ sending a baptized woman 
of their race, by the name of Margaret, to preach the Gospel 
among them. 

The war with Holstein concerning the possession of 
Schleswig had been brought to an armistice, and the 
queen sailed to Flensburg to conduct further negotiations. 
While still on board of her ship, death surprised her, in 
1412. 

Margaret has been called the Semiramis of the North 
and well deserves her widespread fame. During her reign, 
the Northern countries, through her wisdom and strength, 
enjoyed a degree of order which they missed both before 
and after. She put an end to the foreign influence which 
had governed Sweden. Yet her rule was a disappointment, 
and the Union also. She paved the way for a new foreign 
influence, by making a German prince her successor and 
by leaning too much on the Hansa. The aristocratic op- 
pression was crushed by her, but she introduced the oppres- 
sion through royal bailiffs. She promised to preserve the 
old territory of Sweden unmolested, but placed the island 
of Gothland under Denmark. ^The Union of which Queen 
Margaret was the champion her successors were not able 
to grasp or uphold in the spirit of her good intentions. To 
Sweden it came in an inauspicious time when it was not 
fit to receive it. Foreign oppression had irritated the people 
to resistance, and discontent was to give life to patriotism. 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 105 

Sweden had recently developed into one joint constitu- 
tional body, the various provinces giving up their an- 
cient laws for a state law, in which the old individual 
traits were gathered and recognized. We know how Swe- 
den was settled, not by various tribes, but by pioneers who, 
from the old home of culture, Scania, penetrated to the 
wilderness above, settling one district after the other, 
which, one by one, developed into provinces, little states 
by themselves, later united into one realm with a common 
king. One by one these provinces had taken the lead in 
the political and cultural development, often the youngest 
before the oldest. Thus the Swedes, a younger branch of 
the Gauts, gave their name to the country and furnished 
the rulers, the Guts of the island of Gothland securing the 
commercial supremacy of the sea, and the Rus of the out- 
skirts of Upland founding the Russian empire. Now it fell 
upon Dalecarlia, the most recently settled of Swedish prov- 
inces, to save freedom and independence to a newly regen- 
erated state which was awakening to the consciousness of 
its solidarity of interests, aspirations and duties. From 
Dalecarlia came the first great political leader. From there 
he and his later successors received their chief support. 

Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson is the earliest and greatest 
of the patriotic heroes of Swedish history. To the glory of 
his deeds and the noble simplicity of his character the death 
of a martyr gives added lustre. Engelbrekt was born at 
Kopparberg, in the mining district of Dalecarlia, where 
there were many German settlers. Possibly his early an- 
cestors were among them ; but for three generations at least 
they had been native-born Swedes, Engelbrekt's father, 
as- he himself, belonging to the Swedish nobility, although 
not of the influential families. Engelbrekt had received the 



106 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

chivalric education of his time at the courts of the great 
nobles, being next in rank to a knight, vcepnare (squire), 
at the opening of his career. He was small of stature, bat 
eloquent, courageous and of a lofty mind. The integrity 
of his character was absolute; his personal necessities were 
few and plain. 

King Eric was a highly educated and refined man, not 
without a certain ability, but entirely without discernment 
and patience for the various demands and conditions of the 
countries over which he was set to rule. His foreign bail- 
iffs in Sweden, mostly Danes, with a fair sprinkling of 
Germans and Italians, were still less in sympathy with his 
Swedish subjects. They tried to manage them as they did 
the Danes and the inhabitants of more southern countries, 
for centuries accustomed to slavery, ignorant of the ancient 
spirit of independence of the Swedish yeomanry, abated 
but not suppressed. When oppression no longer kept within 
reasonable bounds, the Swedish patience came to an end, 
and first in the youngest and most solitary parts of the 
country. 

The most hated of Danish bailiffs was Jcesse Ericsson, 
of Westmanland and Dalecarlia. After having confiscated 
the horses of the peasants, he is said to have harnessed the 
men to plows and the women to grain-loads, once suffo- 
cating five peasants. Engelbrekt felt compassion for the 
misery of the suffering people and accepted the commission 
to seek the king, to make complaints in their behalf. He 
appeared before King Eric in Denmark, demanding punish- 
ment of the cruel bailiff and offering to go into prison or 
surrender his life if not speaking the truth, as was the 
custom of the time. The king gave him a letter to the 
Swedish council of state, demanding an inquiry which was 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 107 

promptly mads. When Engelbrekt for a second time ap- 
peared with the corroboration of his statements from the 
Swedish councillors, the king sent him away in a fit of 
impatient rage. Upon his return, the Dalecarlians rose 
in a body, selecting Engelbrekt as their leader and march- 
ing south to Westeros. The councillors met and promised 
to have justice done in the case. But things remained the 
same until the following spring, in 1434. At midsummer 
the Dalecarlians commenced operations. The fort of Bor- 
ganaes and the castle of Keeping were destroyed. Engel- 
brekt asked the people of Westmanland to join him, which 
they did to a man, the nobles also joining upon evidence 
of the determination of the popular leader. In Upsala, 
Engelbrekt found the people of Upland ready to join, and 
he made clear to the great multitudes the mission he had 
undertaken. He now felt strong enough to take a hand 
in the affairs of state; with the consent of the leading 
nobles reducing the taxes by one- third. Engelbrekt called 
upon a young, high-spirited nobleman, Eric Puke, to bring 
Norrland to revolt and destroy the forts of that district, 
which commissions Puke fulfilled to the letter, thereupon 
reinforcing Engelbrekt with his men. In the meantime, 
the people of western Soedermanland rose by their own 
determination, destroying Gripsholm; the bailiff of the cas- 
tle escaping with his treasures in boats over Lake Mselar. 
, In Vermland and Dal the people followed these examples 
of revolt. The commander of the Stockholm fortress agreed 
upon an armistice, other castles surrendering or promising 
to surrender. 

Engelbrekt met the council of state at Vadstena, escorted 
by 1,000 men of his best troops. Without fear or haughti- 
ness, he pleaded the cause of his country, advising the coun- 



108 HISTOEY OF SWEDEN 

cillors in firm and eloquent words to see to it that the for- 
eign oppression came to an end. The council hesitated, 
Bishop Knut of Linkceping stating that the oath to the 
king could not be broken. To this Engelbrekt answered 
that the king had pledged many oaths but kept none, 
for which reason the people were freed from their oath. 
Upon a wholesome demonstration of force the councillors 
gave in and dictated a letter in which they broke their 
pledge to King Eric, yet giving as an excuse that they 
were compelled to do so. The revolt had now spread to all 
parts of the kingdom, at least 100,000 being armed to meet 
the emergency. But so carefully and quietly was the work 
of liberation performed that no harm was done in the parts 
where the peasant armies were moving. After having 
entered Halmstad, Engelbrekt returned to Westeros, where 
the army was scattered, but soon gathered again upon the 
report that the king with a fleet was approaching Stock- 
holm. Upon his arrival, the king found Stockholm en- 
closed by a peasant army and returned to Denmark, forced 
to agree to an armistice, At a meeting in Arboga, Engel- 
brekt was elected regent. This was the first meeting in 
which representatives of the merchant class and the yeo- 
manry took part, being thus the first riksdag or parliament 
composed of the four Estates — noblemen, ecclesiastics, 
burghers, and yeomen. 

King Eric promised, upon his return to Stockholm, to 
govern the country according to its laws and through Swed- 
ish men, appointing Krister Nilsson Vasa drotsete, and 
Charles Knutsson Bonde marsk. But so badly did he keep 
his promises that he was once more dethroned. The nobles 
iiastened to elect Charles Knutsson regent, but through 
pressure which the peasants brought to bear it was agreed 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 109 

that he should share his power with Engelbrekt and lead 
the siege of Stockholm, while the latter should free the 
country from the bailiffs reinstalled by the king. 

Upon his second tour through the country, Engelbrekt 
was seized by illness, but being called to Stockholm by an 
important state affair, he started over the lakes thither from 
CErebro. One evening he stopped at an islet in Lake Hiel- 
mar for the night. When he saw a boat approach with 
Mons Bengtsson on board he staggered on a crutch down 
to receive him. This man sprang ashore and assaulted 
Engelbrekt, who tried to ward off the blows of the axe 
with his crutch, but failing to do so he was killed on the 
spot, in April, 1436. The perpetrator of this beastly mur- 
der was a son of a noble with whom Engelbrekt had been 
engaged in some controversy which he had recently settled 
to the satisfaction of both parties. The murderer escaped; 
but, although shielded from punishment by Marsk Charles 
Knutsson, he was shunned by everybody, his high-born and 
wealthy relations for several centuries refusing to carry the 
proud family name (ISTatt och Dag) upon which he had 
brought shame. 

The memory of Engelbrekt is one of the most honored 
and most beloved in Swedish history. He waged the first 
battle against the oppression which foreign intrigues had 
brought upon his country, and saved from the peril of 
slavery the ancient freedom and independence of the Swed- 
ish people. 

Through a remarkable coincidence, a cousin of Engel- 
brekt' s murderer, Nils Bosson, a young follower of the 
popular hero, who took his mother's family name of Sture^, 
was to become the father and grandfather of two of 
most revered of Engelbrekt's successors; Nils Bosson h 



110 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

self being as sympathetic and upright a type of noble- 
man as any time or country has produced. 

Charles Knutsson, after Engelbrekt's death, was the 
most influential man in Sweden. But he was a very differ- 
ent man. Belonging to the highest aristocracy, he was him- 
self of great wealth, highly talented, well read, and a great 
traveller. He was exceedingly handsome, dignified, ami- 
able, eloquent, and possessed a voice of unusual charm and 
strength. But he was a prey to ambition, determined to 
make his way to the throne, but little careful in the selec- 
tion of his means toward that end. He aroused the sus- 
picion and hatred of Eric Puke, whom he irritated to revolt 
only to get him in his power. This noble but headstrong 
man was executed for treason, while Drotsete Krister Nils- 
son, who signed the death-warrant in the interest of 
Charles, himself was persecuted by the latter and deprived 
of all his fiefs save one. Charles showed great severity in 
punishing the peasants, who were Puke's supporters, four 
of them being burned alive; thus losing the popular 
sympathy, while becoming an object of envy in the 
eyes of the nobles. These recalled King Eric, who 
was again found impossible and soon dethroned also in 
Denmark. 

Christopher of Bavaria, a nephew of Eric, was elected 
to succeed him (in 1440) by the nobles of Denmark and 
Sweden. He was a good-natured man, who allowed the 
aristocrats of Sweden to rule as they pleased, only keeping 
an eye on Charles Knutsson. Christopher died in 1448. 
During his reign a new state law was issued in 1442, called 
"King Christopher's land's law," although the king prob- 
ably had very little to do with its form or stipulations. It 
offered a few improvements, but in general so closely resem- 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 111 

bled the older state law that the one was often mistaken for 
the other and both remained valid until 1736. 

Charles Knutsson (Charles VIII.) returned from Fin- 
land, which duchy had been held under his supremacy, four 
months after Christopher's death, and was by an over» 
whelming majority elected king of Sweden. Shortly after 
his coronation at Upsala he was elected king of Norway 
and crowned at Drontheim, in 1449. His reign opened with 
a lucky expedition to the island of Gothland. But in the 
following year King Charles lost both Gothland and Nor- 
way to Christian of Denmark, with whom the Unionist 
party of Sweden entered into secret plots against the king. 
Invasions and intrigues followed. Christian invaded Sma- 
land, East Gothland and Vermland, to which Charles 
responded by an invasion of Scania, destroying the old 
town of Lund with nineteen of its twenty churches, the 
cathedral alone being spared. Christian took revenge by 
an invasion of West Gothland, capturing Losdoese. An- 
other Danish army marched through East Gothland, but 
met defeat at Holaveden through an onslaught made by 
Swedish peasants. The valiant Tord Bonde, a cousin 
of King Charles, took the Danes by surprise, recapturing 
Loedoese. An armistice of two years was agreed on, in 
May, 1453. 

In the battle against open and secret enemies things 
turned out badly for King Charles. The best supporter of 
his cause, his cousin Tord, was murdered by a Danish traitor 
in his service, in 1456, and a new and dangerous enemy was 
encountered in the Church. The king had confiscated to the 
crown a number of estates which the Church had gained 
in an illegal way. While preparing for an expedition to 
CEland, and having instructed the archbishop to gather 



112 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

troops for him, Charles learned that this man, Joans 
Bengtsson Oxenstierna, had turned against him. The 
archbishop deposited his ecclesiastical robe at the high 
altar of the Upsala cathedral and started, sword in hand, 
with his forces to meet the king. Charles tried to surprise 
him, but was himself caught in a trap and met his enemy 
on the ice of Lake Mselar. The encounter proved a defeat 
to Charles, who in haste stored his treasures in a convent 
in Stockholm and sailed for Dantzic. 

Christian of Denmark was called in by the archbishop 
and chosen king of Sweden. Christian was a sagacious 
ruler, but his great need of money, incurred by the redeem- 
ing of Schleswig and Holstein, made him unpopular. As 
the easy-going Christopher had been surnamed ' 'Bark- king,' ' 
on account of dearth experienced in Sweden during his 
reign, when the people had to mix bark with their flour, 
thus Christian, on account of his avidity, was called "The 
Bottomless Purse." During Christian's war with Russia, 
the archbishop was commissioned to collect the increased 
taxes, but failing to do so, to the full extent demanded, 
he was imprisoned at the command of the king. This 
caused indignation. 

Kettil Karlsson Vasa, a nephew of the archbishop, and 
the bishop of Linkoeping, revolted and defeated the king 
and his army at Haraker's church, in Westmanland, in 
1464. The victors then marched on Stockholm. The pop- 
ular opinion of the country demanded the reinstalla- 
tion of King Charles. The peasants wanted him ' 'because 
Sweden was of old a kingdom, not a regent's land or a 
diocese." King Charles returned in the same year, but 
soon left the throne again on account of a conflict with 
Bishop KettiL This latter turned to Christian, promis- 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 113 

ing a safe return to the crown if he set free the arch- 
bishop. Christian immediately did so, the worthy bishops 
commencing operations against Charles, who, defeated and 
forsaken by all, abdicated his throne, January 30, 1465. 
The once upon a time richest man of Sweden was now 
deprived of all, Christian having taken his hidden treas- 
ures. He retired to Raseborg, a castle in Finland, which 
after some hesitation was granted him. "We have," wrote 
he, "in such manner departed from Sweden, that never 
longeth us to return thither the third time." He also com- 
plained of his misery in the following strophe of assonance 
verse : 

While I was lord of Fogelwick 
Then I was both mighty and rich, 
But since made the king of Svea land 
I am a poor and unhappy man. 

Great confusion reigned in Sweden during the next two 
years, Bishop Kettil, who styled himself regent, tried to 
conduct the government in common with the archbishop, 
but the great nobles did their own pleasure. At last one 
of them, Ivar Axelson Tott, who had the island of Goth- 
land in fief, joined the party of Charles, marrying his 
daughter. His brother, Eric Axelson, was made regent. 
Nils Bosson Sture had been repeatedly asked to accept this 
dignity, as also the crown, but he refused. He and Sfcen 
Sture, of the original Sture family, who led the army under 
Bishop Kettil at Haraker, now mad?; possible the second 
reinstallation of Charles, in 14/J7, the ambitious archbishop 
dying in the same year. But Chrrles was old and weary 
of the vanities of life, for which ho had made so many sacri- 
fices. It was only the valor and strength of the two St u res 
that made it possible for him to keep the crown and to die 



114 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

in the purple, in 1470. He designated Sten Sture as his 
successor at the rudder of state, but warned him not to 
seek the crown. "That ambition," he said, "has crushed 
my happiness and cost my life." 

Charles is very sympathetically dealt with in the New 
Rhymed, or Charles Chronicle, probably written by one of 
his men, who flatters him, as did the Old Chronicle the 
ill-fated Duke Eric. Still the Charles Chronicle and its 
continuations, the Sture Chronicles, are very important 
historic sources of these periods of Unionism versus Patriot- 
ism, from Margaret to Gustavus Vasa. The less reliable 
Prose Chronicle and the later historic works by Ericus Olai, 
Johannis Magnus and Olaus Petri, also throw light upon 
them. What all of these have in common is a fiery 
patriotic spirit, entirely lacking in the placid and artistic 
lines of the Old Chronicle as compared to the New. With 
the seeds of patriotism were sowed those of national hatred 
against a foreign foe. That the Dane and not the German 
was destined to be this national enemy was disastrous to the 
Union of the North, but probably a gain for the cultural 
development of Sweden. This period is rich in shorter 
poems on political men and conditions, all of a strongly 
democratic flavor. Among these the song about his friend 
Engelbrekt, by Bishop Thomas of Strengnaes, occupies a 
high place, but a still higher one the Song of Liberty,, by 
the same high-minded patriot. 




CHAPTER VII 

Unionism versus Patriotism — Uncrowned Kings of 

the Sture Families 

TEN STURE THE ELDER was chosen regent by 
the council of state and elected by the people 
at the Riksdag of Arboga, in 1471. For more than 
half a century following upon the reign of Charles VIII., 
Sweden was governed by uncrowned kings, with the inter- 
mission of a few years. These regents had not any repub- 
lican ideals in mind, nor were they secretly coveting the 
crown. Their ambition was simply to uphold a strong and 
firm national government by means of which foreign lord- 
ships could be made impossible, the people enjoy their rights 
arid their liberty, and the government increase in power and 
authority at the expense of Church and nobility. The policy 
laid down by Sten Sture the Elder, and strictly adhered to 
by him and his successors, was of the broadly democratic 
spirit of Engelbrekt. This policy was strengthened by the 
high esteem in which the regents were held. Yet their 
position was a very difficult one, for although enjoying the 
full confidence of the people, they were regarded with envy 
and suspicion by the aristocracy, who never could be per- 
suaded but that these noble uncrowned rulers were secretly 
scheming for obtainance of the royal crown. 

Sten Sture had the good fortune to inaugurate his reign 

(115) 



116 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

with a glorious victory over King Christian, which put an 
end to Danish invasions during a whole generation. Chris- 
tian arrived at Stockholm with a fine fleet and a magnificent 
army, taking his position at Bruokeberg, close to the north 
of the capital. Here a long and fierce battle was fought, 
October 10, 1471. Sten Sture commanded a large army of 
peasants, attacking Christian's fortified position from the 
north, supported by Knut Posse, with burgher troops, from 
the south. At the third attack victory was won, Nils Bos- 
son Sture arriving on the battle scene with an army of 
Dalecarlians. King Christian was wounded in the mouth; 
the famous Danish Oriflamme, Dannebrog, was captured, 
being surrounded by five hundred corpses of select Danish 
knights. Through the prestige of the great victory at 
Brunkeberg, Sten Sture managed to give Sweden ten 
years of undisturbed peace and comfort. Encouraged by 
the victory over the foreign invaders, the city of Stock- 
holm took the lead in ridding the towns of undue influ- 
ence, caused by the supremacy of German commerce. The 
town laws held a stipulation that half the number of coun- 
cillors in each town council should be Germans. A petition 
headed by the burghers of Stockholm and circulated through 
the towns was acted upon, the council of state abolishing 
by law the stipulation in question. Free markets were es- 
tablished in the commercial centres Kalmar and Soederkoep- 
ing, and a new commercial town was founded on the Gotha 
River, to be called Gothahamn, although the name was 
changed to !New Loedcese. In spite of the supremacy of 
the Hanseatic League, commerce was good, the iron mines 
of Dalecarlia, Westmanland, Nerike and Eastern Vermland 
growing in importance, and silver being produced by various 
mines in Dalecarlia. 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 117 

Lord Sten gave careful and loving attention to the needs 
of the yeomanry and the common people. He kept an open 
and watchful eye on the bailiffs, and carried out the de- 
mands of justice with severity. Many farms, desolate and 
neglected during the times of war, were brought under cul- 
tivation. Lord Sten made no decision in any matter of im- 
portance without consulting the yeomen and the burghers, 
as well as the nobles, at Riksdagar, the parliamentary nat- 
ure of which was further developed. With a firm hand he 
held the nobles down to order and the requirements of a 
national democratic policy. The powerful brothers Ivar 
and Eric Tott especially caused him annoyance, the former 
holding the island of Gothland, the latter the duchy of Fin- 
land, in fief. It came to open hostilities with Ivar Tott 
who, defeated and deprived of his castles, fled to Denmark, 
taking revenge by turning the much contested island over 
to said power. 

Lord Sten was a very pious man, but he held the 
ecclesiastics under strict surveillance on account of their 
unpatriotic tendencies. But he collaborated with them 
for the establishment of a state university at Upsala, in 
which the archbishop, Jacob Ulfsson, was greatly inter- 
ested. Sanctioned by the pope, the university was opened 
in 1477, with great ceremonies. One of its earliest profess- 
ors was Ericus Olai, the author of the first but rather uncrit- 
ical work of Swedish history, Chronica Regni Gothorum, 
written in awkward mediaeval Latin, but in a style at- 
tractive through its vivacity. Latin was chiefly used by 
the learned and literary men. The cloisters and the cathe- 
drals had schools where the young people were trained for 
the learned professions, chiefly the Church. For a univer- 
sity education, the institutions of Cologne, Prague, Leipzig 



118 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

and Bologna, but chiefly Paris, the greatest of them all, had 
been sought. The Swedes had three collegia in Paris, and 
the Scandinavians held there an honored position as schol- 
ars, the Swedes three times filling the office of rector 
or president of the Paris university, the highest dignity of 
learning in the world. Ingeborg Tott, the wife of Sten Sture, 
was a great friend of learning, having books printed at her 
expense and collecting a large library in the convent of 
Mariefred, founded by Lord Sten. 

The peace of the country was disturbed by a war with 
Russia. Attacks on the castle of Viborg had been made 
shortly after the battle of Brunkeberg, but warded off by 
Eric Tott, who in return invaded Russian territory. After 
his death the valiant Knut Posse was made commander of 
Viborg. The Russians, in 1495, made a violent attack upon 
the castle, damaging it considerably. But Posse led the 
defence with superior skill, repulsing the enemy with as- 
tounding force. This deed has become famous in popular 
traditions, both Swedes and Russians crediting Posse with 
an alliance of a supernatural order. The regent himself 
twice headed expeditions to Finland, forcing a new Rus- 
sian army to retire over the frontier. Affairs were going 
badly on account of unsafety in Finland, and dearth and 
intrigues in Sweden. The council of state accused Lord 
Sten of not doing all he could for Finland while secretly 
fanning the discontent of the commanders, who made per- 
sonal sacrifices of time and money by remaining with the 
army. It came to hot words between Lord Sten and 
the commander Svante Sture, the son of Nils Bosson. He 
returned home, although Lord Sten told him he was a 
deserter in so doing, "fleeing from the banner of state." 
Svante Sture, who with Posse had made a glorious inroad 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 119 

upon Russian territory, now joined the aristocratic enemies 
of the regent, calling in King John (Hans) of Denmark. 
John succeeded Christian in 1482, and commenced intrigu- 
ing for the Swedish orown. The Swedish nobles were anx- 
ious to have this good-natured monarch for ruler. Lord 
Sten was too sagacious to openly oppose them, when they, 
in the so-called Recess of Kalmar of 1483, declared John 
king of Sweden, the king promising the island of Gothland 
to Sweden, and all old privileges to the nobles. By means 
of skilful diplomatic operations, Lord Sten delayed matters 
to such an extent that it took fourteen years before John II. 
was king of Sweden in anything but name. But the time 
was ripe for Svante Sture's open conflict with Lord Sten. 
The council, the archbishop leading, broke their faith with 
the regent, offering King John the crown. He came with 
an army to Stockholm, taking his position at Brunkeberg. 
An army of Dalecarlians marched upon the capital at the 
solicitation of Lord Sten, who awaited them with another 
army. The operations took an unfavorable turn on account 
of misapprehended movements, Lord Sten with difficulty 
saving his life. King John understood that a continued 
struggle would lead to his ultimate defeat and made peace. 
Lord Sten retired, but with the greatest fiefs given to any 
Swedish man; viz., the whole of Finland, with large pos- 
sessions besides. When the king entered Stockholm, in 
October, 1497, it was at the arm of Lord Sten, to whom 
he said jestingly: "Have you now prepared everything well 
for me at the castle, Lord Sten ; the table set with meat and 
ale, so that my guests may make merry?" Lord Sten an- 
swered in the same light spirit, pointing to the Swedish 
nobles who had joined the royal retinue: "That these know 
best who stand there behind you. They have it all both 



120 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

baked and brewed." Later the king remarked: "Lord 
Sten, it is a bad inheritance you have bequeathed on me 
in Sweden ; the peasants whom God created slaves you have 
made into lords, and those who shou* > have been lords you 
try to make slaves." At his coronation in Upsala, the king 
bestowed knighthood upon many Swedish nobles (some- 
thing that had been beyond Lord Sten's authority to do), 
upon his return to Denmark appointing Lord Sten to take 
the reins of government with three state councillors at his 
side. 

King John's reign in Sweden was of short duration. 
He failed to return the island of Gothland to the Swedish 
crown and lost his prestige through an unsuccessful war in 
Ditmarschen. Svante Sture, who had not been dealt with 
according to his expectations, declared war upon the king 
and joined Lord Sten, who was in an unenviable position 
and glad to shaks off the Union with Denmark, which he 
did, in 1501, when made regent for the second time. With 
a peasant army siege was laid to the castle of Stockholm, 
held hj the energetic Queen Christine, who capitulated after 
a heroic struggle. Three days later King John appeared 
with an army, but returned, seeing that he came too late. 
Lord Sten retained Queen Christine at Vadstena for some 
time, later escorting her to the Danish frontier. Upon his 
return he was taken ill and died suddenly at Jcenkceping, 
December 14, 1503. With him the older or original line 
of the Sture family became extinct. Lord Sten was the 
greatest ruler since Margaret, and his rule, being of a more 
patriotic and democratic tendency, was of greater benefit 
to Sweden than hers. 

Svante Sture succeeded Sten. He was of the younger 
Sture line, the son of the noble patriot, Mis Bosson, who in 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 121 

the time of Charles VIII., as the friend of Engelbrekt and 
Bishop Thomas, had taken stand against the archbishop 
and the nobles, backed by the Dalecarlians, who adored 
him. Lord Svante was a very quick-tempered man, which 
led him into the conflict with Lord Sten. Unlike the regent 
and his own father, he never had experienced what Danish 
oppression meant, which accounts for his unwise decision in 
joining the Unionists. The war with Denmark lasted eight 
of his nine years of reign, which proves him an able soldier 
and a stanch patriot. His position from the start was less 
favorable than that of his predecessor, who could reign in 
the glory of his early victory at Brunkeberg. 

Lord Svante had in Doctor Hemming Gad a patriotic 
adviser of rare attainments and great learning. He had 
studied in Rostock, was for twelve years Lord Sten's rep- 
resentative in Italy, and later bishop of Linkceping, al- 
though never sanctioned and finally placed under ban by 
the pope. Hemming Gad was the first democratic agitator 
of Sweden, a warm admirer of the Stures, and a good sol- 
dier. His statecraft he had evidently learned in Italy with 
her traditions of Machiavelli. His literary style is very 
characteristic, the language of a learned ecclesiastic with 
the oaths of a soldier. Those of his writings which are still 
extant prove a great love for the common people, a love 
which was returned by them. Having organized the revolt 
against King John, he evinced great slyness and presence 
of mind at the death of Lord Sten. To preserve its secrecy 
until Svante was forewarned and in possession of the castle 
of Stockholm, he had a man dress in the clothes of the de- 
ceased regent and continue the journey to the capital with 
Sten's retinue. 

The Unionist party was as ready as ever to offer the 

XX 6 



122 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

crown to King John, their representatives agreeing to pay 
a yearly tribute until he or his son Christian was chosen 
king. This agreement was made in 1509, but it called forth 
a storm of indignation from the patriots and the people, and 
was never considered by the government. Lubeck opened 
hostilities against Denmark and was joined by Sweden, the 
Unionists recommencing deliberations whenever it looked fa- 
vorable for Danish interests. Lord Svante made sure of peace 
and safety for Finland before taking up the conflict with the 
Danes. On the eastern shore, Hemming Gad led the opera- 
tions against the town and castle of Kalmar, held by the 
Danes. The town was soon captured, but the castle not 
before the end of 1510. Ake Hansson (Natt och Dag) 
fought with great valor and considerable success against 
the Danes on the western and southern frontier, until this 
" Tormentor of Denmark," as he was surnamed, was killed 
in battle in 1510. On the sea the Danes were superior, a 
fleet under the command of Otto Rud and Soren Norrby 
plundering Abo in Finland. But when Lubeck's fleet 
appeared the Danes were forced back. Peace was made, 
but soon broken. Lubeck sent a fleet to invade the coast 
of the Danish isles; Hemming Gad, with several Swedish 
ships, taking part in the expedition. Denmark did her best 
to crush Swedish resistance by inducing Russia to break the 
peace, the emperor to declare Sweden the arch enemy of 
the German empire, and the pope to place her under ban. 
More unfortunate to Sweden than these intrigues was 
the fact that King John in his son Christian had an able 
warrior and a great organizer. Prince Christian put down 
a revolt in Norway against Danish oppression, entering 
West Gothland with a superior army. The Unionists 
assembled to force the regent to abdicate, but he firmly 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 123 

refused to do so. A rebellion seemed imminent, Lord 
Svante hastening to Westerns to confer with the people 
of the mining districts. Shortly after the opening of the 
meeting, Lord Svante died quite suddenly, after a stroke 
of paralysis, in January, 1512. 

The council of state selected Eric Trolle, a learned but 
unfit man of the Unionists, to succeed Lord Svante. But 
the popular opinion condemned him, and the council was 
forced to choose Svante' s son as his successor. 

Sten Sture the Younger was barely nineteen years of 
age at his father's death. Knighted when only five, he 
early distinguished himself as a warrior, winning fame 
for his chivalric spirit and noble character, and, like his 
illustrious namesakes, his father and grandfather, becoming 
the idol of the people. And he deserved their idolatry. 
More resembling his grandfather in the sweetness of his 
disposition than his sterner predecessors, he was as great 
a warrior as his father, to which he joined the sagacity 
and power of self-control characteristic of the elder Lord 
Sten. As a youth, he was made regent of a country in 
war, distress and peril. He was called away by death 
when only twenty-seven, leaving behind the memory of 
not one evil deed to soil the glory of his fair name, al- 
though continually placed in trying and dangerous posi- 
tions of strife, rivalry, envy and rebellion. He made his 
will respected by high and low with a temperance in spirit 
and methods worthy of the highest admiration and the 
devoted love of the people. The young Lord Sten had a 
tender heart for the lowly and the suffering, never fearing 
to wring their rights from the oppressors, whosoever they 
were. He took great interest in the pursuits of peace, dur- 
ing the intervals allowed by his successful exploits in war. 



124 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

In spite of the plague and other contagious diseases, which 5 
together with the destruction of war, ravaged the country, 
he left it in a better condition than he received it. In 
many ways more farseeing than his contemporaries, his 
name will live on for centuries as one of the most be- 
loved in Swedish history. 

With the younger Lord Sten, other new actors appeared 
upon the stage of Scandinavian history. Christian II. suc- 
ceeded his father upon the throne of Denmark and Norway. 
Id Sweden, Archbishop Jacob Ulfsson retired and was 
succeeded by Gustavus Trolle, a son of Lord Eric. The 
new archbishop was of a hateful and jealous disposition. 
He resolved to avenge the treatment his father had received 
at the hands of Lord Sten and the Swedish people by plac- 
ing Christian on the throne. The young regent made no 
less than four attempts to win over this formidable enemy, 
but all in vain. He opened up a court at Stseket, in Up- 
land, more brilliant than that of Lord Sten, and accepted 
subsidies from Denmark. At last, fully aware of the secret 
deliberations going on, Lord Sten surrounded Stseket and 
called a Riksdag at Arboga, in 1517, where it was resolved 
that Christian should never become king of Sweden, and 
that the siege of Staeket should be continued. Christian 
sent a little army to support his ally, but Lord Sten met 
it at Ladugardsland, outside of Stockholm, completely rout- 
ing it. A new Riksdag was called at Stockholm before 
which the archbishop appeared upon truce. His language 
was haughty and disdainful. He said he was in his full 
right to support King Christian's claims with mitre and 
sword, the pope sanctioning his policy; and to the pope 
alone he was responsible. The indignant Riksdag resolved 
that the archbishop should be deprived of his seat, being 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 125 

guilty of high treason, and that his castle should be burned. 
The resolution was written down and signed by all the bish- 
ops, none daring to oppose the yeomanry. Bishop Brask, 
of Linkceping, managed to conceal in the wax of his seal 
a paper with the words: "To this I am forced by neces- 
sity." The archbishop returned to defend Staeket, but soon 
had to flee with his followers. It was only by using all his 
authority that Lord. Sten could save his enemy's life from 
the irate people. Trolle was forced to resign his seat and 
was imprisoned in a convent at "Westeros, while his castle 
was torn down. Lord Sten wanted to appoint a successor 
to Trolle, but Bishop Brask objected that the pope might 
not consent to his removal. To this Lord Sten uttered the 
following manly words, hardly in touch with the policy of 
Rome : "I think that our most holy father, the pope, and 
the canonic law should not tolerate as the leaders of the 
Church, and as the precepts or mirrors to the people, men 
who are infested by open treason, in particular against their 
own country." The Church tried various means to gain 
a settled condition of things. When Sten refused the royal 
crown from its hand, he was at last placed under ban. 

The hostilities with Denmark recommenced. King 
Christian appeared with a fleet and an army, in June, 
1518, laying siege to Stockholm. His attacks were val- 
iantly repulsed, and Christian, fearing to be encircled by 
his enemies, marched away in a southeasterly direction, 
taking a firm position at Brennkyrka. A Swedish army 
met him from the south and gave battle one of the 
last days of July, 1518. It was a fierce conflict, ending 
with a victory for the Swedes. The chief banner was car- 
ried by the squire Gustavus Ericsson Vasa, who five years 
later was to become king of Sweden. Christian returned 



126 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

to attack Stockholm, once more in vain. He was to sail 
for Denmark, but was kept back by storms, great suffering 
being experienced by his men. Christian was forced to 
open deliberations, making very high demands. But Lord 
Sten refused to hold a meeting, postponing it to the follow- 
ing year. A few days later, King Christian sent word that 
he wanted the regent to visit him in his ship on important 
affairs. Lord Sten, always good-natured and ready to 
accept peace, thought that the king had changed his mind 
and was ready to go. But the burgomaster and council 
of Stockholm prevailed upon him not to go, sure that it 
would bring him into the enemy's hands. Lord Sten took 
their advice and arranged for a meeting on land, sending 
six Swedish nobles as hostages to the king at his demand. 
Among these were Dr. Hemming Gad and Gustavus Erics- 
son Yasa. For two days Lord Sten waited in vain for the 
king to appear. Then he learned, to his dismay and indig- 
nation, that King Christian had sailed to Denmark, taking 
the hostages with him as prisoners, October 4, 1518. 

Christian collected all his forces and resources to crush 
Sweden. The whole of the following year was spent in 
preparations. Sweden was placed under ban by the pope, 
and Christian made himself his representative, the one who 
was to fulfil the heavenly punishment. In January, 1520, 
a large Danish army invaded Smaland and West Gothland. 
Lord Sten made an appeal to the people and gathered a 
peasant army, with which he met the superior force of the 
enemy at Bogesund, in West Gothland. The Swedish 
forces were arranged in line on the frozen surface of Lake 
Asund. Lord Sten rode in front of the line, encouraging 
his men, but was seriously wounded during the very first 
engagement and carried from the field. After two vain 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 127 

attempts, the Danes were victorious in overthrowing the 
Swedes. These gathered in the wooded hills of Tiveden 
for a last heroic resistance, which was broken; the Danes 
taking possession of the provinces to the north. Lord Sten, 
mortally wounded, died on the ice of Lake Maelar during 
his journey to Stockholm. Christian continued his march 
on Stockholm, the castle of which was heroically defended 
by Lord Sten's consort, Christine Gyllenstierna, who also 
tried by support and exhortations to encourage other strong- 
holds not yet surrendered to resist the Danes. The castle 
of Kalmar was defended by another heroic woman, Anna 
Bielke. But Christian won, through persuasions and de- 
liberations, what he could not take by violence. His opera- 
tions were carried on by Dr. Hemming Gad, who, for rea- 
sons unknown to history, had changed his old patriotic 
views and become a friend of Christian. In September, 
1520, Christian won Stockholm by peaceful agreement. 
The 4th of November he was crowned by Trolle, the rein- 
stalled archbishop. At this occasion it caused considerable 
surprise that only Danes and Germans were knighted, the 
herald proclaiming that the country was won by sword, for 
which reason no Swede could be thus honored. This was 
in striking contrast to Christian's proclamation of having 
ascended the throne by right of his descent from St. Eric. 
Worse things were to follow. 

The 7th of November a great number of Swedish nobles 
were called to the castle of Stockholm, where they were 
brought before a tribunal, the king presiding. The arch- 
bishop asked for remuneration for the sufferings caused him 
during Lord Sten's reign. A jury of bishops and nobles 
convened. Christine Gyllenstierna was the first to answer 
to the accusations, holding forth that the Riksdag of Ar- 



128 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

boga was responsible for the action taken against Troll e 
and bringing the signed document in evidence. The king 
answered by announcing that all who signed were under the 
ban of the pope; Bishop Brask was the only one acquitted, 
producing his written slip of reservation from under his 
seal, besides Bishop Otto of Westeros, who supported Trolle 
in his claims. In the evening all the accused were impris- 
oned and judgment passed on them the following morning. 
In the morning of November 8th, a solemn procession 
of convicts started from the castle to the grand square, 
hedged in by soldiers and executioners. The bishops Mattias 
of Strengnses and Vincentius of Skara, in their ecclesiastical 
robes, came first, followed by thirteen noblemen and thirty- 
one town councillors and burghers of Stockholm. In the 
square, a Danish councillor of state from the porch of the 
court-house asked the masses not to be frightened. The 
archbishop, he said, had three times on his knees implored 
the king that justice should be done. Bishop Vincentius 
replied with great courage that the king had committed 
treason against the Swedes and called down divine punish- 
ment on him for such deeds. Two of the Swedish nobles 
followed the bishop with short addresses, admonishing the 
people not to believe in false letters and promises and to put 
down such tyranny as soon as within their power. King 
Christian, who from a window of a house facing the square 
looked down on the spectacle, now gave a sign for the 
executions to commence. First the bishops, then the state 
councillors, nobles and burghers were beheaded, among 
whom were two brothers of Christine Gyllenstierna and 
the father and brother-in-law of Gustavus Ericsson Vasa. 
Many burghers were captured in the street, or in their 
homes, and brought in to be executed, others being killed 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 129 

on the spot. Not less than eighty-two persons were that 
day executed, the number being increased during the fol- 
lowing days by people killed in various ways. Olaus Petri, 
the reformer, who was an eyewitness, in his history gives 
a graphic description of the terrible scenes. He adds: 
"Yes, this was a horrible and cruel murder, such as no 
other prince who carried a Christian name ever committed 
before." The corpses were burned, the remains of Lord 
St en and one of his sons being taken from their graves and 
thrown into the flames. Christine Gyllenstierna, and the 
mother and sister of Gustavus Vasa, were with several 
other ladies carried to Copenhagen and thrown into a miser- 
able dungeon. The mass murder has been called the Car- 
nage of Stockholm, but it was extended also to Finland — 
where Dr. Hemming Gad was executed at Raseborg— and 
to the provinces. Christian marked his return through the 
Swedish mainland to Copenhagen by executions and mass 
murder everywhere ; six hundred are estimated to have been 
killed through his order during his short stay in Sweden. 
Archbishop Trolle had taken a terrible revenge, and 
Christian thought he had crushed forever the stubborn 
Swedish resistance. But through this excess of cruelty the 
Union became insupportable, and the Swedish people re- 
solved to throw off forever the connection with any foreign 
ruler. In the woods of Dalecarlia a man was hiding who 
soon was to step forward to lead the work of liberation and 
independence. 




CHAPTER VIII 

Revolution and Reformation — Gustavus Vasa 

USTAVUS ERICSSON VASA, the man whom 

Providence had selected to save his country from 

anarchy and ruin, belonged to a noble family of 

Unionist sympathies, his great-grandfather being Drotsete 

Krister Nilsson Vasa. But the Vasa family had joined 

the cause of the patriots during the reigns of the Stures, 

simultaneously losing some of its earlier importance. The 

Vasas prided themselves on being the descendants of St. 

Eric and his line, and of St. Birgitta and the Folkungs. 

Its coat-of-arms consisted of a simple vase, or bundle of 

sticks. Gustavus Vasa was born May 12, 1496, at Liud- 

holmen in Upland, at the mansion of his parents, Eric 

Johansson Vasa, state councillor, and Cecilia of Eka, a 

sister of Christine Gyllenstierna. His earliest years were 

spent with his mother at Rydboholm, another estate of his 

father's, beautifully situated on an arm of the Baltic, only 

ten miles north of Stockholm. When a mere boy he was 

sent to the court of his granduncle, Sten Sture the Elder, 

who was childless. King John of Denmark noticed the 

bright little boy during a visit paid to Lord Sten. Young 

Gustavus took the command of ail the other children at 

play and appeared to be a born leader. The king called the 

boy to him and asked him what his name was. Gustavus 
(130) 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 131 

answered frankly. King John smilingly placed his hand 
on the boy's head, saying: " Certainly thou shalt become 
a man in thy day if preserved in life." The king inti- 
mated that he wanted to take him along to Copenhagen to 
supervise his education. But Lord Sten, who did not like 
this idea, hurriedly had Gustavus sent away, so that he 
could tell the king upon a second inquiry that the boy had 
returned to his parents. The young Gustavus was de- 
scribed as "attractive and welcome with everybody." 
Gustavus was sent to Upsala to study at the age of thir- 
teen. The University of Upsala was at that period in a 
state of stagnation. The first teacher who came in contact 
with Gustavus was a Dane named Master Ivar. Accord- 
ing to the Prose Chronicle, he was a man who "was mean 
to everybody and who gave Gustavo drubbings." It seems 
that the patriotic spirit early woke in the breast of this 
youth, who already in these days foreshadowed his own 
mission in the following words: "I will betake myself to 
Dalecarlia, rouse the Dalecarlians and batter the nose of the 
Jute." When eighteen years of age, he was accepted as a 
squire at the court of Sten Sture the Younger, and Chris- 
tine Gyllenstierna, his own aunt. He followed the younger 
Lord Sten in all his expeditions of war, taking part in the 
siege of Stasket and a battle of Dufnaes, and carrying 
the banner of state at Brennkyrka. 

A second time in his life it came to pass that Gustavus 
Vasa was considered a person whom the Danish king was 
desirious of carrying away. This time the king was Chris- 
tian II., who gained his object by treachery and violence. 
Gustavus was one of the Swedish hostages who were offered 
to King Christian and by him carried away to Denmark. 

Gustavus was handed over to Eric Baner, a relative of 



132 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

his, who held in fief the castle of Kalloe in Jutland. The 
latter was placed under a heavy fine in case he allowed his 
prisoner to escape. Gustavus received a kind and generous 
treatment. He ate at the table of the lord and was allowed 
to wander at liberty in the close neighborhood of the castle. 
But the danger that menaced his country never left him 
in peace. He heard repeatedly of the great preparations 
made by Christian II. to crush the resistance of Sweden, 
and of the acts of violence to be perpetrated. Gustavus 
remained at Kallce for a year, when he resolved to flee 
from a captivity which had become insupportable. One 
morning at sunrise, Gustavus Vasa put on the garb of a 
peasant and disappeared from the castle. He made good 
speed, reaching a seaport and escaping to Lubeck with a 
merchant vessel. In this friendly Hanseatic centre Gus- 
tavus expected armed support. Such was not granted, but 
he was shielded against Danish pursuit. Eric Baner ar- 
rived, having followed up his tracks, but his demands to 
have Gustavus surrendered were refused. After eight 
months of delay in Lubeck, Gustavus obtained leave and 
arrived in Sweden on board a German ship. He landed 
at Stensce, a promontory outside of the town of Kalmar, 
while Christian II. was laying siege to Stockholm. Gus- 
tavus was resolved to do his utmost to rouse the people 
to active resistance against the invaders. The castle of 
Kalmar, next to that of Stockholm the firmest stronghold 
of Sweden, was in charge of Anna Bielke, the widow of 
the last commander. Gustavus strengthened the courage 
of the inhabitants of town and castle, but finding it impos- 
sible to accomplish anything for the defence himself, and 
unsuccessful in his attempts to bring the hired German 
troops up to a point of enthusiasm for the Swedish cause, 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 133 

he left Kalmar and continued his way through Smaland. 
But the population of this province had no patience to listen 
to his appeals for a revolt. The peasants answered him 
that if they remained faithful to the Danish king they were 
never to be in want of herring and salt. Some of them in 
their indignation sent arrows flying after the young patriot. 
In September he reached the Terna estate in Scederman- 
land, where his sister and her husband, Joachim Brahe, 
resided. Lord Joachim had just received an invitation 
to be present at the coronation of King Christian in Stock- 
holm. The attempts made by Gustavus to persuade the 
couple to abandon their intended journey to Stockholm were 
futile. Reaching his paternal estate of Rsefsnses in Sceder- 
manland, he remained there in concealment for some time. 
He visited the old archbishop Jacob Ulfsson, who, after his 
retirement, lived in the neighboring monastery of Marie- 
fred. The old prelate tried his best to persuade him to seek 
mercy and grace of King Christian, but the resolution of 
the young squire to free his country was only strengthened 
into an iron-cast determination. One of the servants who 
had followed Lord Joachim to the capital managed to make 
a safe return to tell Gustavus the terrible news of the Car- 
nage of Stockholm. He was also told that a high price had 
been placed on his own head. 

Gustavus at once prepared for flight. Accompanied by 
a single servant he secretly left Rsefsnses one day toward 
the end of November, travelling on horseback northward to 
Dalecarlia. He arrived at Kopparberg in Dalecarlia, where 
he had his hair close cropped and put on peasant's clothes. 
Putting an axe over his shoulder, he went about looking for 
employment. The first man whom he tried was Andrew 
Persson, a wealthy mine owner at Rankhytta. Gustavus 



134 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

found employment with him, taking part in the threshing. 
But the other servants soon detected that the new man had 
a carriage and habits different from their own, and they 
commenced to watch him closely. They noticed that he 
was not accustomed to the work, and one of the servant 
girls saw a collar of silk above the coarse blouse. Andrew 
Persson called before him the suspect, and was highly sur- 
prised when recognizing in him a comrade from the time 
of his student days at Upsala. He was favorably disposed, 
but was afraid of sheltering Gustavus, advising him to flee 
to the less thickly settled parts of the province, and to 
change often from one place to another. Gustavus con- 
tinued his way in a westerly direction, following the shore 
of a lake named Runn, and arrived at Ornaes the following 
day. .He knew he had an old comrade and friend in the 
owner of the place. This man, Arendt Persson, received 
him in the most hospitable manner, but was in his heart 
desirous of obtaining the price placed upon the head of the 
young squire. Gustavus went to bed in the attic, not sus- 
pecting treachery. The host himself accompanied him to 
his resting place, according to the mediaeval custom. This 
done, Arendt travelled in great haste to one of his neigh- 
bors, the much-respected Mons Nilsson of Aspeboda. 
Arendt asked him to assist in capturing Gustavus Vasa; 
but Mons Mlsson flatly refused, taking no pains to hide 
his indignation. Arendt left and went past his own home 
to Seetra, which was the residence of the Danish bailiff. 
He started for Ornses the following morning, accompanied 
by the bailiff and twenty men ready to capture the fugitive. 
But Arendt's wife, Lady Barbro Stigsdotter (Swinhufwud), 
had not been inactive. Her suspicion was aroused when she 
noticed her husband travelling back and forth to disappear 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 135 

in the direction where the bailiff resided. She divined that 
the safety of her guest was threatened and decided to take 
action. Lady Barbro went to the attic, roused her sleeping 
guest and told him of the impending danger. Gustavus let 
himself down to the ground by means of towels fastened to 
the window-sill, assisted by Lady Barbro, who had a horse 
and sleigh in readiness for him, in charge of a faithful 
servant. He reached the residence of John, the priest of 
Svaerdsjoe. Arendt was enraged when he found that Gus- 
tavus had made his escape. It is said that he from that 
day refused to ever see Lady Barbro again. 

The priest of Sveerdsjoe held Gustavus in concealment 
for three days, but advised him to seek a more secure hid- 
ing place. He sent Gustavus to Swan Elfsson, a hunter to 
the king, who dwelt in Isala, a short distance from the 
church of Svserdsjce. Gustavus had hardly reached this 
place before the men sent after him by the bailiff arrived. 
Gustavus stood by the oven warming himself after the ride. 
The wife of Swan Elfsson was busy baking bread. The 
men entered, asking ii any stranger had been noticed in the 
neighborhood. The woman of the house saved the situation 
by resolutely dealing a blow with the bread spade to Gus- 
tavus, who was turning his back to her. In an irritated 
voice she said: "Why dost thou stand here gaping at the 
strangers? Hast thou never seen people before? Get thee 
at once out to the barn and do some threshing." The men 
did not suspect in the snubbed servant the noble fugitive for 
whom they were looking. But Swan Elfsson was not sure 
of the safety of his guest if he remained in Isala. So he 
concealed Gustavus in a load of hay and left his house with 
the great unsettled districts as his destination. He met 
some Danish spies on the way. These suspected the peas- 



136 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

ant and pierced the load of hay with their lances repeatedly. 
Gnstavus was wounded in the leg, but kept his breath and 
lay perfectly still. The spies were satisfied that everything 
was right and told Swan Elfsson to move on. But the 
peasant noticed that blood was dripping from his load, leav- 
ing scarlet tracks on the snow. He quickly drew his knife 
and cut his horse a deep wound in one foot. After a while 
the spies noticed the bloody tracks. They returned and 
commanded Swan Elfsson to halt, inquiring about the 
blood. Swan Elfsson pointed to the injured foot of his 
horse and succeeded in making them believe that the horse 
had met with an accident. 

Swan Elfsson left Gustavus at the village of Marnses, 
situated in the Finn woods, where he was received by other 
hunters. These escorted the noble outlaw to a place further 
away in the woods, where he for three days remained in 
concealment under a big fallen fir tree. The peasants 
in the neighborhood brought food to him. The still hunt 
seemed to be at an end, and so Gustavus risked a visit to 
the church of Rettvik, situated on the eastern shore of Lake 
Siljan. He spoke to the yeomanry collected around the 
church after divine service, reminding them of the stanch 
patriotism and manliness of their ancestors, and imploring 
them to save their country from destruction. The yeomen 
of Rettvik gave a satisfactory answer, telling him that they 
were ready to resist the Danes. But as they had not heard 
the opinion of the people of the other parishes, there was 
nothing to be done for the moment. 

Gustavus continued his way to Mora, one of the most 
densely populated parishes of Dalecarlia and situated on the 
northern shore of Lake Siljan. The priest of the parish 
was afraid to hide the outlaw, but confided him to a peas- 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 137 

ant, Tomte Mats, in the village of Utmeland. Gustavus 
remained for several days concealed in a vaulted cellar, 
which was reached only through a hole in the floor of the 
cottage above. One day the bailiff's men entered to search 
for Gustavus. The woman of the house was busy brewing 
the Christmas ale. She saved Gustavus by quickly placing 
a big barrel over the hinged door, which covered the open- 
ing to the cellar. One of the holidays during Christmas 
Gustavus addressed the peasants of Mora when coming 
from church. He stood on a small hill near the church- 
yard. The noonday sun was shining brightly over the 
snowy landscape and a fresh northerly wind was blowing. 
Gustavus spoke in a loud voice and with great eloquence. 
He asked the men to reflect on what kind of government 
foreigners always had given Sweden, and to remember what 
they had themselves suffered and risked for the liberty of 
their country. He thought that the memory had not died 
either of the deeds of violence perpetrated by Jcesse Erics- 
son or of the deeds of heroism done by Engelbrekt Engel- 
brektsson. He then told them of the treacherous villany 
of King Christian and of the Carnage of Stockholm. "My 
own father," he said, with tears in his eyes, "rather wished 
to die with his brethren, the honest lords, in the name of 
God, than to be spared and live in dishonor after them." 
If the Dalecarlians wanted to save Sweden from thraldom, 
he was ready to offer himself as their leader in the name of 
the Almighty. The speech of Gustavus made a deep im- 
pression upon the men of Mora, and some of them were 
anxious to rise at once. The majority ruled, deciding that 
no action should be taken before the other parishes of Dale- 
carlia had been heard from. They advised Gustavus to 
seek a safer hiding-place further up in the woods. Gus- 



138 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

tavus left Mora utterly discouraged, seeking the paths that 
led along the Dal River into desert wilds. 

At New Year of 1521 Lars Olsson, a soldier who had 
done good service in the times of the Stures, arrived at 
Mora, bringing particulars of the doings of King Christian. 
He told the peasants that the king had ordered gallows to 
be erected at every sheriff's residence to mark the way of 
his Eriksgata. The peasants were touched to the quick and 
regretted having sent away the young nobleman. Lars 
Olsson advised them to call him back. Two expert ski 
runners were sent after Gustavus Ericsson, and after a 
ride of a night and a day through the woods, they overtook 
him close by the Norwegian frontier, which he was ready 
to cross in despair. 

Gustavus returned to Mora and was made the leader 
of the peasants in that locality. With these men he started 
his work of liberation, which was the commencement of one 
of the most remarkable of revolutions that the world ever 
saw. In the beginning of February, 1521, Gustavus 
marched southward with a few hundred men. At Falun 
he captured the bailiff of the mines, confiscating the royal 
taxes. Returning to the starting point, he left it again, 
with an army of 1,500 men. Entering Norrland, where 
he was joined by the peasants of Gestrikland, and the 
burghers of Gefle, while the people of Helsingland asked 
for time to consider the matter, he learned upon his return 
how one of his commanders, Peder Swensson, had won a 
glorious victory over a Danish army 6,000 strong at the 
ferry of Brunnbseck, by the Dal River. Gustavus began 
training his troops, enforcing severe discipline and provid- 
ing them with better arrows and longer lances. He de- 
clared war upon Christian in a formal way and marched 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 139 

on Westeros, where the Danish troops had centred. The 
town and castle were captured in spite of a force of superior 
Danish cavalry. 

Gustavus shifted his army into divisions which marched 
in various directions to capture the castles of surrounding 
provinces. The people of Upland reinforced the Dalecarli- 
ans, who were sent home to tend to their sowing. The 
Upland forces captured the archbishop's seat during his ab- 
sence, and were joined by Gustavus at Upsala, who made an 
exceedingly severe speech to the ecclesiastics, asking them 
to decide their nationality, whether they were Swedes or 
not. They asked permission to consult Archbishop Trolle, 
which was granted. "I will bring the reply myself," said 
Trolle, starting from Stockholm with a splendid body of 
German troops. Gustavus was near being taken by sur- 
prise, but gathering troops he fought the archbishop, whose 
force met with a crushing defeat, and he escaped with 
difficulty to Stockholm. 

At midsummer, 1521, Gustavus arrived at Brunkeberg, 
laying siege to Stockholm. The capital was strongly forti- 
fied, and Norrby with a Danish fleet supported and relieved 
it. Twice the Danes routed the Swedish troops with the 
intermission of one year, but Gustavus provided reinforce- 
ments. He travelled through the country, visiting the 
forces who laid siege to the various Danish strongholds, these 
surrendering one by one. It was not a chain of glorious 
exploits, this work which Gustavus carried to a successful 
end, but one of infinite patience and sagacity, saddened by 
.the news that the revengeful Christian had ended the lives 
of his captive mother and sister in the miserable Danish 
dungeon. Bishop Brask was scared into submission, turn- 
ing his castle Stegeborg and part of his troops over to Gus- 



* 



140 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

tavus, who at a Riksdag at Vadstena was elected regent 
in August, 1521. 

Gustavus entered into an alliance with Lubeck, and 
it sent a fleet to Stockholm, thus encircling it also from the 
sea. Norrby left with his ships and was nearly caught in 
the ice in the following spring. In Denmark, Christian's 
reign came to an end. With his usual violence he attacked 
the nobles and the ecclesiastics in order to better the con- 
ditions of the peasants, for whom he had a tender sympathy. 
In so doing, he brought the nobles to open revolt against 
his rule. He left his throne in April, 1523. Now Gustavus 
found the opportune moment to accept the Swedish crown 
offered him. He called a Riksdag at Strengnses, in June, 
1523, where Gustavus was chosen king of Sweden "by the 
councillors of state with the consent of the common people.' ' 
At this occasion a tax was agreed on to pay the German 
troops engaged in the siege of Stockholm, and to Lubeck 
for its timely support. In that very month Stockholm sur- 
rendered, and Gustavus held his proud entry into the capital 
on the eve of Midsummer day. 

The position of the king was a most difficult one. The 
crown was ruined through the previous state of anarchy 
and the expense of war. The Church was in undisturbed 
possession of its wealth, but not willing to yield any of its 
power or income. Christian was preparing a plan by which 
to recapture his lost crowns. Norrby, who had aspirations 
of becoming Christian's regent in Sweden, tried to persuade 
Christine Gyllenstierna, lately set free from her prison, to 
many him in order to obtain the prestige of the Stures. 
The common people, whom Gustavus so recently used to 
free the country, grew restive and rebellious when he could 
not at once grant them guarantees of comfort and prosperity 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 141 

in return. In a marvellous manner Gustavus understood 
how to face the situation and how to use to the utmost 
the resources within reach. 

When the outlawed youth of twenty-four spoke of revolt 
to the peasants at Mora, Martin Luther was burning the 
ban placed on him by the pope. There were several warm 
friends of Luther in Sweden, principally Olaus Petri, him- 
self a pupil and friend of the German reformer, his brother, 
Laurentius Petri, and Laurentius Andrese. Olaus was a 
soul of fire and enthusiasm. He was lacking in self-con- 
trol, but possessed a power which if not restrained would 
have led him and his work of reform further than the goal 
set by Luther. The two Laurentii were, like him, men of 
learning and, in addition, of greater sagacity. The king 
took interest in these men. He was contemplating a reduc- 
tion of the ecclesiastical power, and they were to prepare 
the soil by freeing the people from undue respect for the 
Roman Church and its worldly power. Laurentius Andrese 
was made the king's chancellor, and Olaus Petri secretary 
to the town council of Stockholm, later pastor of the Cathe- 
dral Church. Olaus preached in the Stockholm Cathedral 
fiery sermons against Rome and the pope, responded to 
sometimes by irate monks, sometimes by various projec- 
tiles from the audience. Gustavus took pains to fill the 
vacancies of the Church, which were many, by appointing 
able men. But he made two serious mistakes in making 
Master Knut, dean of Westeros, archbishop, and Peder 
Sunnanvseder, formerly secretary to Svante Sture, bishop 
of Westeros. He came in possession of a correspondence, 
which proved that Bishop Peder tried to bring the Dale- 
carlians to revolt, and when accusing him and finding Mas- 
ter Knut on the side of the defence, Gustavus deprived 



142 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

them of their new dignities. The king commanded that 
a new bishop should be appointed and himself selected 
Johannes Magni as archbishop. This prelate, a very 
learned man, was the representative of Sten Sture in 
Rome, returning to his native land as a papal legate. 
Gustavus had a rupture with him when, according to his 
instructions, he demanded that Trolle should be reinstated 
as archbishop. Archbishop Johannes was lacking in moral 
courage; brushed aside by the tide of Reformation, he re- 
tired to Rome, where he died after writing the history of 
Sweden in Latin, Historia de Geniibus Septentrionalibus. 
Master Knut and Peder Sunnanvseder turned their steps to 
Dalecarlia, fanning the brewing malcontent and opening 
connections with Norrby, who styled himself the betrothed 
of Christine Gyllenstierna and made ready to attack Gus- 
tavus from the sea. Berndt von Melen, a German com- 
mander, in whom Gustavus placed much confidence, was 
to chase Norrby away from his stronghold, the island of 
Gothland, but turned a traitor, joining Norrby instead, in 
1524. Gustavus called a Riksdag at Westeros, in 1525, 
resolved to use his diplomacy to the utmost. Upon receiv- 
ing a letter from the Dalecarlians, in which they stoutly 
swore off their allegiance to him on account of heavy taxes, 
foreign influence and disregard for the Church, the king 
offered to abdicate. The representatives at the Riksdag 
persuaded him to remain, whereupon the king sent the Dale- 
carlians a sagacious letter, promising to improve the state of 
things as much as possible, but pointing out the two prelates 
as traitors in conspiracy with the Danes. The Dalecarlians 
were pacified, Knut and Peder finding it safest to leave for 
Norway. In the following year the king met the revolting 
peasants of Upland at Old Upsala, where he in a fiery 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 143 

speech unfolded his policy toward the Church. The peas- 
ants resented; they wanted to keep their monks and their 
masses. The king commanded one of his followers to make 
a speech in Latin, the peasants shouting that they did not 
understand. "Why do you, then, love so dearly your Latin 
mass?" the king asked them smiling. A few days later 
Gustavus made a crushing speech against lazy and worth- 
less ecclesiastics before the chapter of Upsala. The arch- 
bishop was sent away on diplomatic errands to Poland and 
Russia never to return. After his departure Bishop Brask 
became the chief representative of papal interests. He was 
patriotic, but never yielded an inch of the worldly power of 
the Church except to force, opposing the Reformation with 
his whole strength. 

The kijg followed up his policy by demanding for the 
crown two-thirds of the ecclesiastic tithe and by placing 
the ecclesiastics under the duties of russtienst, in 1526. 
The ex-prelates, Knut and Peder, were, upon the king's 
request of an extradition, given up and sentenced to death 
for high treason. The king arranged for their triumphal 
entry of mockery into Stockholm in a most humiliating 
fashion, for which he has been criticised ; also for the con- 
summate manner in which the judges were appointed and 
judgment passed. But he set an example of warning to 
obnoxious and intriguing prelates that was appreciated by 
his contemporaries. 

Gustavus gained the triumph of his policy by the famous 
Riksdag of Westeros in 1527. It was nothing else than a 
coup d'etat, a revolution, which, with the establishment 
of the Reformation, gave his throne solidity and resources. 
The Diet was called under the pretext of taking measures 
against a new revolt in Dalecarlia and for the regulation of 



144 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

dogmatic questions. There were present sixteen state coun- 
cillors, four bishops, one hundred and twenty-nine knights 
and nobles, one hundred and five peasants, besides various 
priests, burghers and miners, bat no representatives from 
Finland or Dalecarlia. In the great hall of the monastery 
the meeting was held, opening with a written address by 
the king, read by his chancellor, in which the situation 
of the country was set forth. The king refused to continue 
at the government, asking to be remunerated for personal 
losses and expense, and given a fief like any ordinary 
bailiff responsible to the crown. Only if fundamental re- 
forms were made would he remain, not being able otherwise 
to cover the inevitable deficit of the treasury. Bishop Brask 
responded with the statement that he for his part was in 
duty bound to the king, but that Rome and its demands 
must, in the first place, be obeyed ; showing by his remarks 
that he understood that the question was one of reducing 
the ecclesiastical power. The king rose and said in a burst 
of passion: "We have no further desire, then, to be your 
y king. Yerily, we had counted on quite another treatment 
at your hands. We now no longer wonder at the perver- 
sity of the people, since they have such advisers. Have 
they no rain, they blame us for it. Have they no sun, 
likewise. For dearth, hunger and plague we are respon- 
sible, as if we were not a man, but God. Yea, though we 
labor for you with our utmost power, both in spiritual and 
in temporal affairs, you would gladly see the axe upon our 
neck, but no one dares to grasp the handle. Monks and 
priests and all the creatures of the pope are to be placed 
above us, though we have little need of them. In a word, 
you all would lord it over us. Who under such circum- 
stances would desire to govern you? Not the worst wretch 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 145 

in hell would wish the post, far less any man. Therefore 
we, too, refuse to be your king. We cast the honor from 
us, and leave you free to choose him whom you will. But 
be so kind as to let us leave the land. Pay us for our 
property in the kingdom, and return to us what we have 
expended in your service. Then we declare to you that 
we will withdraw never to return." With tears of anger 
and emotion the king left the hall, leaving the assembly 
in consternation. 

After four days of pandemonium and deadlock, the rep- 
resentatives decided to give in and ask forgiveness of the 
king, who long disregarded the appeals made for his return. 
When re-entering he was greeted by commotion and the 
humblest demonstrations of respect and repentance. The 
next day, Midsummer day, votes were taken upon his prop- 
ositions, each Estate of representatives sending up their vote 
with a written construction of the propositions. These were 
then revised by the state councillors in their final form, 
called "Westeros Recess," with amendments called "West- 
erns Ordinantia." The startling revolutionary stipulations 
of the "Recess" were chiefly these: Authority for the king 
(1) to take in possession the castles and forts of the bishops, 
whose retinues he was to fix as to numbers ; (2) to dispose 
of the superfluous income of the clergy and to superintend 
the administration of the monasteries; authority for the 
nobility to resume title to all their property which had 
come in the possession of the Church since 1454; author- 
ity to have the Gospel preached all over the country in 
undeflled purity. Among the "Ordinantia" the most im- 
portant were: (1) Vacancies in the parish churches were 
to be filled by the bishop under the supervision and right 

of suspension of the king; (2) the king was to fix the 

xx 7 



146 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

amount of revenue due the bishops, chapters and clerks, 
and be entitled to use the surplus for the crown; (3) the 
priests were in secular suits to be responsible to secular 
courts; (4) the Gospel should be read in the schools. The 
king asked the bishops in person to surrender their castles, 
to which demand they all agreed. 

We may feel inclined to smile upon the drastic manner 
in which Gustavus enacted this important drama of Revo- 
lution, but must bear in mind his solitary position. He had 
no statesmen of ability at his side, nor men of great intellect 
and power to sustain him. He stood alone, and few knew 
as yet his superior qualities as a statesman and an organ- 
izer. The tame opposition, soon yielding to the appeals of 
the burghers and peasants, can only be explained through 
lack of leaders. Ture Jcensson (Tre Rosor), the aristocratic 
chief of the opposition, was a vain and cowardly man. 
Bishop Br ask, the head of the clergy, was old and more 
of a diplomatist than a man of action. The latest stanch 
Romanist, he gave up his cause, finding a pretext to leave 
the country and dying in his self-imposed exile. The eccle- 
siastical reforms were definitively arranged at a church 
meeting at CErebro in the following year. 

It was one of the evils which beset the reign of Gustavus 
that revolts constantly occurred in various provinces and for 
various reasons. Dalecarlia took the lead. The inhabitants 
were not able to bear the distinction won by their great 
patriotic services in the times of Engelbrekt, the Stares, 
and Gustavus. Their complaints were mostly unreason- 
able, sometimes ridiculous, as when they tried to prescribe 
the kind of cloth and colors to be used at court, and so forth. 
There was no fable, however stupid, which was not read- 
ily believed by them and the responsibility placed on the 




THE BATTLE OF PULTOWA 



Sweden 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 147 

king. Particularly was everything eagerly swallowed which 
spoke of injustice committed against the descendants of 
the Stures. A daring pretender took advantage of this 
fact. He was born of the lowest peasant class, serving 
on an estate in Westmanland, where he had stolen a sum 
of money from his master. Appearing in Dalecarlia, where 
he claimed that he was a son of Lord Sten and Christine 
Gyllenstierna, he gained a great deal of support among the 
yeomen, who cried with him like children when he spoke 
of his noble father and asked them to pray for his soul. 
The false pretender had his instructions from Peder Sun- 
nan vseder; he married in Norway a woman of noble birth, 
and, upon his return to Dalecarlia, surrounded himself with 
a regular court. An end was put to his career by a letter 
from Christine Gyllenstierna, written at the request of the 
king, in which she told the Dalecarlians that her son Nils, 
whom the pretender impersonated, had recently died, and 
that an impostor was misleading them. The false Nils Sture 
answered by claiming that he was born before marriage, 
the would-be-reason why his mother did not acknowledge 
him. This even the Dalecarlians found was a stretching of 
truth. The pretender, who had been stamping coins with 
his image and held the demeanor of a ruling prince, fled 
to Norway and thence to Rostock, where he was captured 
and beheaded. No blood was shed during this period of 
revolt; but the king, who was crowned at Upsala in 1528, 
proceeded from his coronation to Dalecarlia with an army 
of 14,000 men. He commanded the Dalecarlians to meet 
him, and forgave them after a severe sermon of reproach, 
making them surrender the chief supporters of the "Dal- 
junker," who were executed on the spot. 

No better was the outcome of a revolt prepared by some 



148 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

nobles of West Gothland in the following year. They tried 
in vain to make the population join with them. The king 
managed to obtain their secret correspondence, and had the 
guilty ones arraigned before a meeting at which he scru- 
tinized and repudiated the false charges made against him. 
The nobles asked forgiveness and were pardoned, with the 
exception of two, who were beheaded. But; the originators 
of the revolt had fled. They were Ture Jcensson and 
Bishop Magnus of Skara. The former joined the deposed 
King Christian, who, in 1532, prepared an attack on Sweden 
in his attempts to recapture his crowns. With him were 
other such distinguished traitors as Gustavus Trolle and 
Berndt von Melen. Gustavus I. sent a splendid army 
to meet Christian near Kongelf. Christian withdrew in 
disappointment, leaving Ture Jcensson behind in the 
streets of Kongelf, minus a head. Christian was im- 
prisoned by his uncle, Frederic of Denmark, and died 
in captivity. 

In order to pay the debt to Lubeck it was decided at a 
meeting at Upsala, in 1530, that the bells of the churches 
should be taken to be melted down. Concessions to do so 
were asked and obtained from the various communities. 
But upon the surrender of the bells discontent grew up. 
In Dalecarlia it came to revolt and open violence. The 
people refused to give up their bells or took the surren- 
dered ones back with force. Threatening letters were sent 
to the king, who at first pretended to ignore the whole mat- 
ter. Christian was preparing his last attack, and prudence 
seemed advisable. The inducements made by the Swedish 
traitors to support Christian's claims were scornfully re- 
pulsed by the Dalecarlians, who still continued with their 
insulting letters to the king. Gustavus answered them in 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 149 

a peaceful way. In 1533, at New Year, he suddenly ap- 
peared with an army in Dalecarlia, where the revolters also 
this time received a severe reproach and were forced to give 
up their leaders. These were executed, and that ended the 
last revolt of Dalecarlia. 

In the following year Sweden was forced into a war 
which lasted up to 1536, the so-called "Feud of the Counts," 
the chief participants being the counts of Holstein, Olden- 
burg and Hoya. Sweden sided with Christian of Holstein, 
who fought for his rights to the throne of Denmark after 
his father Frederic, being opposed by the other counts and 
by Lubeck. Hard and repeated pressure was brought to 
bear on Svante Sfcure, a son of Lord Sfcen and Christine 
Gyllenstierna, to appear as a pretender against Gustavus; 
but the noble youth, who was sojourning in Germany, 
firmly withstood these temptations. His mother had mar- 
ried John Turesson, a son of the traitor Ture Joensson, who 
was as able a man as his father was a bad one, being the 
successful commander of a Swedish army which invaded 
the Danish provinces held by the count of Oldenburg. A 
Swedish fleet, created through sacrifices of nobles and 
peasants, distinguished itself repeatedly. The war ended 
in the defeat of Lubeck. 

Gustavus had, since the end of the work of liberation, 
crushed the power of the Church, punished the revolting 
peasants, kept the aristocracy within bounds, and put an 
end to the supremacy of Lubeck. But he went still further, 
trying to deprive the Church of its last vestige of authority, 
to introduce a minute administration of the provinces and to 
enforce the absolute power of the crown. To these plans he 
was led by two foreign advisers, Georg Norman and Kon- 
rad Pentinger. But it must be said to the credit of the 



150 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

king that their influence vanished when he saw that their 
" reforms" were not acceptable to the people. From this 
period of his reign, one noteworthy and wholesome measure 
remains, the reintroduction of the former hereditary order 
of succession to the throne. It was formulated and accepted 
at the Riksdag of CErebro (Jan. 4, 1540), memorable also 
through death sentences pronounced upon two of the apos- 
tles of the Swedish Reformation. The king had long re- 
garded his chancellor and the two brothers, Olaus and 
Laurentius Petri, the latter archbishop of Upsala, with 
suspicion. The climax was reached when a conspiracy 
by German burghers of Stockholm against the king's life 
was discovered, and it was proved that Olaus Petri and 
Laurentius Andreas were conscious of its purport, without 
making it known to the king. They were condemned to 
death, Archbishop Laurentius being forced to take a seat as 
one of the judges, but pardoned at the request of the burghers 
of Stockholm, on the grounds that the ministers had re- 
ceived their knowledge on the pledge of secrecy through 
confession. Laurentius Andreas lost his position as the 
king's chancellor. In the following year each church 
in the country was presented with a copy of the com- 
plete translation of the Bible, the work of the two re- 
formers. 

The greatest, most serious and most expensive of peas- 
ants' revolts was that called the Dacke Feud (1542 and 
1543), after its leader Nils "Dacke, a peasant born in Ble- 
king, emigrated to Smaland, which became the scene 
of his revolt. The peasants were resolved to make war 
on the royal bailiffs, the nobles and the new religion, and 
found in Dacke an excellent leader, ferocious, daring and 
of some military ability. The forces sent by the king to 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 151 

meet him were repeatedly routed. The king was seriously- 
alarmed, particularly since the revolt attracted attention 
abroad and was encouraged by Emperor Charles V., in 
the interests of the deposed Christian, his brother-in-law, 
and by several German princes. The emperor wrote to 
Nils Dacke a letter, preserved to this day, although it never 
reached its destination, in which Charles, with pride, recalls 
his Gothic (that is, according to the views of his time, Swed- 
ish) origin: "Sumus et nos de gente Gothorum." Nils 
Dacke's plan was to place Svante Sture on the throne. He 
wrote him a letter to this effect, which the noble Sture 
handed over to the king, together with the messenger who 
brought it. After much effort the king gathered an army 
of considerable strength, which was ordered against Dacke, 
who was defeated at Lake Asund. He fled and was pur- 
sued by the troops into Bleking, where he was captured and 
shot. This revolt cost Gustavus dearly, but was a good 
lesson in regard to the more immature of his reforms, 
against which it, to a great extent, was directed. 

Now the storms and trials of his reign were at an end, 
and Gustavus allowed to gather the fruit of his wise man- 
agement, which itself grew wiser with his old age. In 1544 
the Union of Succession of 1540 was confirmed at Westeros. 
In matters of finance Gustavus laid the foundations of the 
modern state. The bailiffs were multiplied and made to 
give close accounts of the revenues. Fiefs granted to nobles 
before were now kept by the crown. The great nobles who 
held fiefs were placed under stricter control. The bloody 
Christian did useful work for the crown by ridding it of 
many unruly heads. The privileges granted by Westeros 
Recess were enforced, but the king saw to it that the nobil- 
ity received back only what was properly due. But when 



152 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

the crown was concerned, property was taken from tHie 
Church to the greatest tension of these privileges, and like- 
wise for the king's private rights, by means of which less 
scrupulous tactics both the state and the king were en- 
riched. The former came in possession of 12,000 farms, 
the latter of 4,000, in his case called "inherited estates." 
As Gustavus was a great economizer, he left a treasury re- 
plete with money and uncoined silver, in spite of elaborate 
pomp on state occasions, expensive royal marriages and 
wooings, and a feud with Russia. From which of the two 
treasuries in his care expenses were paid, Gustavus was not 
overparticular. He set a good example as a practical 
farmer and agriculturist, the dairy at Gripsholm standing 
under the personal supervision of the queen, with twenty- 
two less ladylike assistants. 

Gustavus created the nucleus to a standing army of hired 
troops, of natives and foreigners, about 15,000 in numbers, 
and provided Sweden with a considerable and well-equipped 
fleet. He encouraged the mining industry by supporting 
the silver mines of Sala and the copper mines of Falun. 
He introduced the working of iron, according to new meth- 
ods, calling in German experts whose work he superintended 
in person. Putting an end to the supremacy of the Han- 
seatic commerce, he made treaties of commerce with the 
Netherlands and France, making Helsingfors in Finland 
the centre of the trade with Russia. On the western coast 
he founded the new town of Elfsborg, and ordered the in- 
habitants of New Loedoese to move thither. To the cum- 
mon people Gustavus held an attitude which shows 
evidence of love and confidence. Many of his letters and 
messages to them abound in hints at practical methods in 
farming. The schools were improved and partly reorgan- 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 153 

ized through the spirit of Reformation, while the University 
of Upsala lost in importance and prestige, the students again 
going abroad. 

The war with Russia, commencing in 1554, and marked 
by mutual invasions, offered no aspect of importance, and 
was ended by a treaty of peace in 1557. 

The founder of the famous royal line of Vasa was, per- 
sonally, a man of prepossessing appearance, tall, and of 
commanding presence, having blond hair and beard, sharp 
blue eyes, full lips, rosy cheeks and a fine frame. He was 
fond of costly garments, and the styles of his day were becom- 
ing to him. Gustavus was of an amiable and cheerful dis- 
position, although of a quick temper. He had a rare gift 
of winning the goodwill and confidence of all classes by 
addressing everybody according to their compass of intel- 
lect and conversation. He was fond of music, and played 
and sang. The lute was his favorite instrument, which he 
liked to play in his evenings of solitude. Gustavus pos- 
sessed a rare intellect and a remarkable memory. Well 
aware of his own weakness to give way to his quick temper, 
he generally postponed all decisive action in matters of im- 
portance until sure of his full power of discernment. He 
was not a brilliant genius, but a typical prince of the Re- 
naissance epoch, never afraid of taking action in instances 
without a precedence, or of the consequences of his ac- 
tions. His letters and addresses evince an unusual degree 
of common sense, clothed in a language of manly vigor, 
terseness and humor, and are fine specimens of the mod- 
ern Swedish, such as it meets us in this its period of 
rejuvenation, brought about by the spirit of the Refor- 
mation. There is something in the oral and literary elo- 
quence of Gustavus Yasa which makes it easy to believe 



154 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

that he was a descendant of Birgitta. Gustavus did not 
possess the fine erudition of his sons, who were considered 
to be men of learning in their time, for he early left his 
university studies for the court and the war; but he was 
able to pass such good opinions upon subjects of art and 
science that he astonished many who had made these a 
special study. He had the power of recognizing people 
whose faces he once had noticed after ten to twenty 
years of absence, and was also skilled in divining what 
character dwelt behind every face. What he once heard 
he never forgot. Where he had travelled once he could 
never mistake the road, and knew not only the names of 
the villages but also the names of the peasants whom he 
had met. His life was led by the unswaying principles of 
an earnest piety and high morals. His nephew, Peter 
Brahe the Elder, who in a chronicle has given the above 
picture of Gustavus Vasa, adds: "In summa, God had 
bequeathed him, above others, with great ability, high in- 
tellect and many princely virtues, so that he was well 
worthy of carrying sceptre and crown. For he was not 
only sagacious and kind above others, but also manly and 
able. He was sharp and just in passing sentences, in many 
cases being charitable and merciful." 

The royal court was characterized by a joyous and ele- 
vated spirit. Every day after dinner all the courtiers col- 
lected in the dancing hall. The lady of ceremonies then 
entered with the ladies of the court, and the royal musi- 
cians dispensed music for dancing. Every other or third 
day the king went out hunting or horseback riding with 
the gentlemen and ladies of his court. The youths of the 
nobility once a week held exhibitions of fencing and 
other knightly sport, the king taking an interested and ac- 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 155 

tive part. Those who excelled received prizes in the form 
of rings of gold or chaplets of pearls and led the dance of 
the evening. 

Gustavus I. was three times married. His first consort 
was young neurotic Catherine, princess of Saxony-Lauen- 
burg, whom he married while the * 4 Revolt of the Bells" 
was going on in Dalecarlia, and who died four years later, 
leaving him a son, Eric, of her own hysteric temperament. 
Shortly after the death of Catherine, the king married a 
young lady of the highest Swedish nobility, Margaret Leij- 
onhufvud, with whom he lived in a long and happy union, 
ended by her death in 1551, and blessed by ten children, 
among whom the sons John, Magnus and Charles. Lady 
Margaret had been in love with the oldest son of Christine 
Gyllenstierna, Svante Sture, whom she renounced, and 
who married her younger sister Martha. Queen Margaret 
was a tender and high-minded woman, who won the love 
and absolute confidence of her royal consort, on whose quick 
temper she exerted a quieting influence, comforting him 
in hours of trouble and distress. She preserved as queen 
the plain and severe habits of her youth, having a personal 
superintendence over the dairies of the royal castles, espe- 
cially those of Gripsholm and Svartsjce. She was interested 
in brewing, baking and other household affairs, often mak- 
ing with her own hands the clothes of her children. When 
the king referred to Queen Margaret, he always called her 
"our dear mistress of the house." The king remained a 
nobleman of his day in the purple. Royal splendor was dis- 
played on great occasions only. Simplicity was the prin- 
ciple of every-day life. When entertaining his friends, the 
king took great pains to please and arranged many details 
himself. Upon one occasion of this kind at Gripsholm, 



156 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

Queen Margaret carried in the sweetmeats and cookies, 
while the king served the wine and asked his guests to be 
glad and make merry. 

Queen Margaret was suddenly taken ill while partaking 
in a pleasure trip on Lake Mselar, and died in 1551, after a 
touching farewell to her consort. In the following year the 
king married the young Catherine Stenbock, a daughter of 
Gustavus Stenbock, an intimate friend to the king, and 
Lady Brita Leijonhufvud, a sister of Queen Margaret. In 
the lives and fate of Catherine and Margaret there are 
several remarkable coincidences. Like Queen Margaret, 
Catherine was secretly in love with some one else when 
the royal proposal was made. Strange enough the ob- 
ject of Catherine's secret affection was, like Margaret's, 
a son of Christine Gyllenstierna, Gustavus Johnsson Tre 
Rosor. This young man was the grandson of conceited 
Ture Jcensson and the son of able John Turesson, the 
second consort of Christine Gyllenstierna. The family 
name was Tre Rosor, after the coat-of-arms, which con- 
sisted of three roses. As her aunt Margaret must renounce 
the hero of her dreams, so also Catherine. Like his half- 
brother, Svante Sture, Gustavus Tre Rosor married the 
sister of his first love, and this marriage, like that of 
Svante, turned out a happy one. There was a last coin- 
cidence in the life of the two queens. When Margaret 
heard that the royal sponsor was coming, she knew his 
errand and concealed herself in an oak chest in a distant 
part of the castle of Ekeberg. Catherine, upon a similar 
occasion, ran down in the gardens of Torpa and hid herself 
behind a bush. The third marriage of the king was a 
iiappy one, in spite of the great difference in years between 
the consorts. The clergy tried to raise objections, holding 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 157 

that Gustavus and Catherine were too nearly related to 
make the marriage a legal one. After some severe press- 
ure these objections were finally dropped. 

Queen Catherine thus expressed the state of her feelings 
after her marriage: " Gustavus is dear to me, but I shall 
never forget the Rose." 

The king gave scrupulous attention to the education of 
his children. They were brought up in simplicity and stern- 
ness, but received a manifold training and a great amount 
of instruction. While they were studying at Upsala, hams 
and butter were sent them from the royal estates to make 
part of their breakfasts and suppers. In spite of these patri- 
archal endeavors, Eric and John grew up to be typical Re- 
naissance princes, fond of extravagance and luxury. The 
king wrote once to Duke Magnus: "Our dear Lady Cath- 
erine sends thee five shirts which thou must bear in mind 
to take good care of; item, to keep thy head clean and not 
ride or run too much." When his sons grew older, King 
Gustavus used to admonish them orally before the hearth 
or at the table, or by letters, His wise counsel recalls the 
terse and sharp advice of Havamal in the Edda: "Ye shall 
weigh all matters carefully, perform them quickly and 
stand by it, putting nothing off to the morrow; counsel 
not followed up in due time is like clouds without 
rain in times of dearth." "To speak once and stand 
by it, is better than to talk one hundred times.' "Sur- 
round ye ever with able men of pure living; one shall 
believe of ye what one knows about them." Duke Eric 
early caused him trouble by stubbornness, defiance and 
vanity. Duke John, the oldest child of Queen Margaret, 
long remained his favorite, but ended by causing him 
grief through disobedience and secret conspiracy with Eric. 



158 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

In his old age, King Gustavus suffered through failing 
health and melancholy. He complained because the fate 
of his country seemed uncertain on account of the unsta- 
bility of his sons, and because his old friends, like John 
Turesson and Christine Gyllenstierna, passed away before 
him, leaving him alone in the world. 

When King Gustavus felt that the end was drawing 
near, he sent word to the four Estates or representative 
classes of the country, the nobles, clergymen, burghers and 
yeomen, to meet him at Stockholm around the Midsummer 
of 1560. He made known to the Estates his will, which his 
sons pledged themselves by oath to .fulfil. Eric should in- 
herit the crown, according to the will, but the three other 
sons were to receive duchies which they should govern with 
a good deal of authority. It became evident that the king 
had taken pains to provide liberally for his sons. But it ap- 
pears as if he intended to make them all responsible in the 
maintenance of the work of their father, by distributing 
the power between them. 

When the Estates had collected in the hall of state the 
old monarch entered with his sons. After greeting those 
present he delivered his farewell address : 

"I respect the power of God, which with me has rein = 
stalled the ancient royal line on the throne of Sweden. Ye 
have without doubt learned, and those of you who are some- 
what advanced in years have seen for yourselves, how our dear 
fatherland, already for ages in distress and misery through 
foreign lordship, at last suffered the same through the grim 
despot King Christian, and how it pleased God to liberate 
us from this tyranny through me. For this it behooves us 3 
high and low, master and servant, old and young, never to 
forget that same divine he]p. For what of a man was I to 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 159 

set myself against a mighty king, who not only ruled three 
kingdoms, but who also was related to the powerful em- 
peror Charles V. and the noble princes of Germany. But 
God has performed the work, made me the worker of his 
miracle, and been my help and comfort during a reign of 
forty years, the cares of which have hastened me on with 
gray hairs to the grave. Forsooth, I could liken myself to 
King David," and the tears came to his eyes, "whom God 
from a shepherd made to a reigning king over his people, I 
could not divine that glory, when I in woods and desert 
fells must needs conceal myself from the bloodthirsty 
swords of my enemies. Grace and blessing have in a wide 
measure been granted both me and you through the knowl- 
edge of God's true Gospel, also in the shape of material 
abundance, which is evident all through the land, thank the 
Lord. If during my reign anything good has been accom- 
plished, give ye God the glory of it. But for what there 
has been of failure and fault, I beg you, as faithful subjects, 
to forbear and forgive. God is my witness that it has not 
been by meanness, but by human weakness, that I have not 
been able to do better. My ambition has always been the 
improvement and welfare of the people of my country. I 
know fall well that I have been a severe king in the eyes 
of many. Yet that day shall come when the children of 
Sweden willingly would dig me up from under the sod if 
that they could. My time soon is at an end. I need not in 
the stars or other signs search for my last moment; my 
body is to me the trustworthy messenger that I soon shall 
stand before the severe King of kings, to give account 
for the glorious but earthly crown of Sweden which I 
have worn." 

The Estates listened with great emotion to the words of 



160 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

the old monarch. After the king had ceased speaking and 
his will had been sanctioned, Gustavus left the assembly 
supported by his sons and nodding his farewell to those 
standing near. Three months later he was taken ill, and 
September 29, 1560, the great liberator, revolutionist and 
organizer of his country expired. 



CHAPTER IX 
Reformation and Reaction — The Sons of Gustavus I. 

ERIC XIV. succeeded his father in 1560, commencing 
his reign under the most brilliant of auspices. But 
the old King Gustavus had foreseen that his sons 
would cause danger to the realm which he with infinite care 
had built up, After his forty years' work of construction 
followed forty years of destruction which his elder sons 
brought to bear upon it. Fortunately, that work was so 
solid that it withstood this bravely, to rise rejuvenated 
when loving hands anew were laid to it. 

King Eric was one of the most gifted monarchs of his 
time, handsome, eloquent, learned, a fine linguist, a musi- 
cian and artist. But his sharp reason carried him to the 
excess of suspicion, his artistic temperament into hysterics, 
and he was vain, overbearing, quick-tempered, licentious 
and cruel. His leaning toward mysticism made him de- 
voted to astrology. 

Eric's first ambition was to reduce the power of the 

dukes, convoking a Riksdag at Arboga, in 1561, where 

the " Arboga Articles" were formulated for such purpose, 

the dukes being forced to acquiesce. In order to reduce the 

distance between the dukes and the nobility, King Eric, at 

his coronation — celebrated with a lavish display of pomp at 

Upsala in June of the same year — instituted hereditary dig- 

(161) 



162 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

nities of counts and barons. Svante Sture, Peter Brahe the 
Elder and Gustavus Johnsson Tre Rosor were created 
counts, the first and third one the sons of Christine 
Gyilenstierna, Peter Brahe being a cousin of Gustavus 
Vasa. Among the barons were Sten Leijonhufvud, Gus- 
tavus Stenbock, relatives of the dukes, and Clas Kristersson 
Horn (of Aminne). Only small fiefs were given with the 
new dignities, which were nothing but an outward sign of 
the distinction existing between a higher aristocracy already 
extant and the lower nobility. In order to strengthen his 
connection with the nobles, Eric made the estate on which 
a noble fixed his domicile exempt from russtjenst. He was 
jealous of his power and dignity, for which reasons he held 
sharp supervision over his officials. He instituted a su- 
preme court, consisting of twelve men of low birth, who 
every three years made a tour of the country to hold court 
in the name of the king. These justices were the creatures 
of Eric, and soon brought on themselves discredit and hatred 
through their servile and cruel acts. Among these justices 
was Gceran Persson, an able and powerful man, revengeful 
and cruel, who soon rose to be the favorite and influential 
adviser of his master. 

Eric was intent upon making a great match, wooing 
Elizabeth of England, Mary Stuart of Scotland, Renata of 
Lothringia and Christine of Hesse, with more or less suc- 
cess, overlooking Margaret of Valois, who was anxious to 
marry him. His mistress, Carin Monsdotter, a child of the 
people, but beautiful and of a noble character, for whom he 
had formed a secret attachment, finally was made his queen. 

The German Order which held Esthonia and Livonia 
suffered during this period considerably through Russian in- 
vasions. The town of Reval, with a large part of Esthonia, 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 163 

was ceded to Sweden in 1562, upon the receipt of a loan 3 
Eric immediately giving his attention to the depressed and 
enslaved peasants of that section. Later the grandmaster 
of the Order turned Livonia over to the king of Poland, 
who, in need of money, placed seven castles of this province 
at the disposal of John, duke of Finland. John had ten- 
dered a loan to the Polish king and married his sister Cath- 
erine. Eric considered these negotiations as harmful to his 
royal authority, and he asked his brother to give account of 
them in person. John refused, making the royal emissaries 
his prisoners. The Swedish Riksdag condemned John to 
death for high treason, and an army was despatched to Fin- 
land, which carried back Duke John and his consort as pris- 
oners. John's sentence was commuted to imprisonment at 
Gripsholm, proud Catherine choosing to share the fate of 
her husband (1563). The prison life of the ducal couple 
at Gripsholm was not an unpleasant one. They enjoyed 
a great deal of liberty and luxury at the splendid castle in 
Lake Mselar, King Eric sending his brother a copy of Boc- 
caccio's "Decamerone" in German, to read for a pastime. 
The duke read the work and translated it into Swedish, 
The room called "king John's prison," which is still pre- 
served with the artistic decoration which Duke Charles later 
bestowed on it, served as sleeping apartment for the pris- 
oners, and there Catherine gave life to two children, one of 
whom was to become the founder of the Polish line of Vasa 
kings. It is said that Duke Magnus became a prey to the 
disposition of insanity latent in his family, by being forced 
to sign the death sentence of his brother John, King Eric be- 
ing anxious of having him share the responsibility. Magnus 
lived until quite an advanced age, but was never cured of 
his mental ailment. Even in his best hours he was not of 



164 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

very bright intellect. While sojourning at the castle of Vad- 
stena, by the Lake Vetter, he had the vision of a mermaid, 
who coaxed him to follow her. The duke jumped from the 
window of his apartment into the moat below. He did not 
sustain any serious injury, but the incident made the un- 
happy prince famous in tradition and song. 

In May, 1560, a war commenced with Denmark which, 
with several intermissions, lasted for seven years. It has 
been called The Seven Years' War of the North. About the 
same time that Eric became king of Sweden, the young 
ambitious Frederic II. ascended the throne of Denmark. 
In the days of Gustavus I., Christian III. had appropriated 
the Swedish emblem of three crowns for the Danish seal of 
state, as if by this proclaiming that the Union was consid- 
ered still extant or that it could be re-established at the op- 
portune moment. King Gustavus had protested, but with 
no result. When King Frederic kept up the irritating fact 
of preserving the Swedish emblem, King Eric answered 
by placing the emblems of Denmark and Norway in the 
Swedish seal of state. This made things worse and served 
as a nominal cause for war. The principal interest at stake 
was the supremacy in the Baltic provinces. The diocese of 
CEsel, which had accepted a Danish protectorate, was gov- 
erned by a brother of the Danish king, who had entered into 
an alliance with Poland against Sweden, Denmark also join- 
ing it. 

In May, 1563, a Swedish fleet, commanded by Jacob 
Bagge, left Sweden to bring Princess Christine of Hesse, 
the promised bride of King Eric. A Danish fleet met them, 
at the island of Bornholm, and greeted the Swedish ships 
with some shots from their sharply loaded cannon. The 
Swedes returned the fire and a naval battle followed, which 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 165 

ended in a defeat for the Danes, who lost their flagship. 
When Jacob Bagge arrived in Rostock, where he was to 
meet the princess, her father was found unwilling to let her 
sail on account of the insecurity brought about by the com- 
mencing naval hostilities. This would under ordinary cir- 
cumstances have enraged the vain and sensitive king, but 
Eric forgot his rage in his delight at the naval victory. 
Jacob Bagge was rewarded with a triumphal entry into 
Stockholm upon his return. He entered the city on foot 
with a golden chain round his neck, followed by his sub- 
commanders and surrounded by the banners taken during 
the battle. The prisoners followed, in chains and with 
shaved heads. The king's fool was dancing in front of 
them, playing on his fiddle. A Danish herald soon after- 
ward reached Stockholm, declaring war with great pomp 
and ceremony on behalf of his royal master. The city of 
Lubeck sent a messenger to Stockholm on a similar errand, 
but was not received by the king. " Since he is sent by the 
mayor and council of his town and other similar lard- 
mongers, let him be heard and answered by the mayor and 
council of Stockholm," was the royal order. 

Jacob Bagge was ordered to sea with the Swedish fleet 
later in the summer of the same year. He met the united 
fleets of Denmark and Lubeck at the island of CEland, in the 
Baltic. A terrible battle ensued, which lasted until the 
fleets were separated by the darkness of the night, without 
victory being won by either side. Jacob Bagge started out 
with his fleet again in the spring of the following year, com- 
manding a new flagship, "The Matchless," which carried 
two hundred cannon, most of them made out of church bells 
confiscated by Gustavus Vasa. A new battle was delivered 
between the islands of Gothland and CEland. The majority 



166 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

of the Swedish ships had by a gale been separated from the 
admiral and his flagship, but Jacob Bagge fought valiantly 
for a whole day, continuing the battle the next morning. A 
catastrophe brought it to a close. "The Matchless" caught 
fire through some act of negligence, a barrel of powder ex- 
ploding between the decks. Jacob Bagge then surrendered, 
and was taken on board one of the ships of Lubeck. The 
enemies took possession of the "The Matchless" in order to 
plunder it, but the immense ship exploded with a tremen- 
dous roar, sinking with everybody who was on board. Jacob 
Bagge did not long remain in Danish captivity. He re- 
turned, to be greeted with the greatest distinction, and died 
as governor-general of Stockholm. 

The war on land was at the beginning carried on only 
through mutual invasions, both sides giving proofs of cru- 
elty and vandalism. Elfsborg surrendered to the Danes. 
A Swedish army, commanded by King Eric in person, en- 
tered the province of Halland, pillaging and plundering and 
laying siege to the town of Halmstad. King Eric suddenly 
raised the siege, when news came that King Frederic was 
approaching with an army. The Swedish troops scattered 
in various directions, one division being met and defeated 
by the Danes. The whole of Northern Norway was in- 
vaded by Swedish troops and temporarily subjugated. The 
entire kingdom of Norway was very near being altogether 
absorbed by Sweden. This would have been a happy so- 
lution of the Scandinavian question. Norway would have 
become one in language with Sweden and would have shared 
her glorious epoch of political grandeur which was to follow. 
The best families of Norway would have been entered side 
by side with the Swedish nobility at the knightly chapter- 
house of Stockholm, and the countries would have had their 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 167 

later democratic and cultural development in common. But 
King Eric was too restless and undecided to make any last- 
ing conquest, or union, possible. When Claude Collard, a 
young French nobleman, who was the conqueror of North- 
ern Norway, was taken by surprise and captured, King 
Eric, to avenge this, devastated forty church parishes in 
Norway. The Danes invaded and plundered the provinces 
of West Gothland and Smaland, while the Swedes pil- 
laged Bleking and Scania. The king had given orders 
that the population of a whole district should be killed. He 
wrote later about the fulfilment of this cruel command: 
"God granted luck, so that thousands of men were killed 
on the road and in the woods." The province of Scania 
was devastated to a distance of one hundred miles from the 
Swedish frontier. A new invasion into Halland was made, 
in 1565, when Duke Charles, then fifteen years of age, com- 
manded the artillery. The town of Varberg was attacked, 
but valiantly defended by the Danes. The young duke upon 
this occasion gave the first proof of his indomitable energy. 
He led the attack and persuaded the Swedes, by word and 
action, not to give it up. At last the walls were taken, the 
town being pillaged and burned. All men who could carry 
arms were killed, except a force of one hundred and fifty 
men of hired troops who entered Swedish service. A young 
French captain, Pontus de la Gardie, of a noble family of 
Languedoc, was among the latter. This man and his de- 
scendants were destined to play an important part in 
Swedish history. 

Clas Kristersson Horn was made commander of the 
Swedish navy after Jacob Bagge, in which position he cov- 
ered his name with glory. He won a naval battle at CEland 
(in 1564) which lasted for two days. In the next year he 



168 HISTORY OF SWEDEN" 

added several victorious battles to his record, among which 
the principal ones were fought at Buchow, by the coast of 
Mecklenburg, and at the island of Bornholm. When he 
went to sea in the spring of 1566 no enemy dared appear. 
The united fleets of Denmark and Lubeck at last started 
out, but were defeated by Clas Horn at the island of 
OEland after a vehement battle. The vanquished fleets were 
caught in a gale in which sixteen ships perished with seven 
thousand men. Clas Horn with his Swedish fleet was mas- 
ter of the sea. In the following year no fleet appeared to 
meet his. The efforts of Gustavus I. to set the Swedish 
fleet in good order thus proved to be of the greatest con- 
sequence. 

The Danes were superior in the hostilities on land during 
the latter part of the war, thanks principally to their emi- 
nent commander, Daniel Rantzau. He made an unsuccess- 
ful attempt to recapture the town of Varberg, but gained, at 
Axtorna, a battle over a superior Swedish army (in 1565). 
When Rantzau saw the Swedes approaching for an attack, 
he held prayer with his troops, whereupon he arranged them 
for resistance. The Swedish infantry captured the Danish 
stronghold and artillery, but the hired German troops of the 
Swedish wings turned into flight. Rantzau made an attack 
upon the deserted infantry, and was victorious when nightfall 
ended the battle. The Swedes lost thirty cannon, and Nils 
Sture, the son of Count Svante Sture, was able to save the 
banner of state only by severing it from the pole and hiding 
it on his person. In the following year, Rantzau pillaged 
Smaland and West Gothland, and in 1567 he penetrated as 
far as East Gothland, where he was very near being caught 
in a trap by the Swedish troops. The interior struggle of 
Sweden caused hostilities to cease for some time. 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 169 

The sad fate of his brother Magnus also befell King Eric. 
Evidences of approaching insanity were frequent and brought 
on horrible consequences. By licentiousness, mysticism and 
astrological speculations his mind became unsettled. It had 
been predicted that a blond man would dethrone him. Eric 
at first made his brother John the subject of his suspicions. 
After the duke's imprisonment he suspected a rival in Nils 
Sture, who also was a blond. Eric accused him of ill be- 
havior in the battle of Axtorna. The king's court sentenced 
him to death, but Lord Nils escaped with a contumelious 
entry of mockery into Stockholm, on a miserable horse, and 
a crown of straw on his head. But frightened at the indig- 
nation aroused by his shameful act the king tried to undo it, 
and sent Lord Nils on an embassy to Lothringia, to bring 
the king's proposal to Princess Renata. 

In the commencement of 1567, the king had several of 
the nobles arrested, on the suspicion of conspiracy, and car- 
ried to the castle of Upsala, where a Riksdag was convoked. 
Nils Sture arrived with the consent and betrothal ring of 
Princess Renata, but was thrown into prison. The king 
asked the Riksdag to pass a sentence of death upon the 
accused nobles. When this was refused, he was seized by 
fear and rage. Rushing into the prison of Nils Sture, he 
wounded him in the arm. Lord Nils drew out the weapon, 
a dagger, kissing its handle and returning it to the king, 
with a prayer for mercy, but was killed by the soldiers at 
the command of the king. Eric's disposition immediately 
was changed, and he darted into Count Svante's prison, 
begging forgiveness at his feet. The aged Sture's answer 
was that he would forgive all, granted that no harm was 
done to his son. The king fled in despair from the castle 

and town, followed by some of his soldiers, one of whom he 

XX 8 



170 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

sent back with an order to kill all the nobles, " except Lord 
Sten." As there were two by that name, these were spared, 
but Count Svante and his son Eric Sture, Abraham Stenbock 
and Ivar Ivarsson were killed. The Riksdag was forced to 
pass sentence for high treason upon the murdered men, at 
the instigation of Gceran Persson, whose perfidious advice 
had continually inflamed the sickened brain of his master. 
King Eric was for several days missing, and at last found 
wandering about in a peasant's garb. Cared for by Carin 
Monsdotter, he slowly regained his reason, showing evidence 
of repentance by declaring the murdered nobles innocent and 
promising to compensate their families. During this spell 
he set free his brother John and dismissed Gceran Persson. 
But soon his evil disposition returned, and the resolution of 
his brothers to free the country from his rule must be ac- 
knowledged as a beneficent one. The nobles were brought 
to revolt, when Eric, in July, 1568, proclaimed Carin as his 
consort, and had her solemnly crowned Queen of Sweden. 
The dukes John and Charles were at first unsuccessful in 
their efforts, the king defeating their troops repeatedly. 
But in 1569 Stockholm was captured, Gceran Persson killed 
and the king forced to abdicate. The sentence passed upon 
Eric, by the Estates of the Riksdag, stipulated that he 
snould be "imprisoned, but sustained in a princely manner, 
for the rest of his days." 

Eric was at first held imprisoned in his own apartments 
at the royal castle, but was transferred to two of the vaults, 
called the "apartments of Lord Eskil." They had served as 
a treasury during the reign cf Gustavus I., but now stood 
empty. Queen Carin and her children were his company. 
After an unsuccessful attempt at flight, one room was taken 
away from him and the windows in the remaining one re- 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 1?1 

duced in size. The table of the royal prisoner was well pro- 
vided for, but he was unmercifully treated by his warders. 
The cruel Olof Stenbock once deprived him of all his clothes. 
In a struggle which followed, he shot Eric in the arm and 
let him remain senseless in his blood for several hours. 
Some of the members of the former body-guard of Eric 
once attempted, but in vain, to set free the unhappy pris- 
oner. In 1569 Eric was removed to Abo in Finland, where 
he was locked up in a secure prison. Two years later he 
was taken to Castellholm, in the archipelago of Aland, for 
fear that the Russian czar would liberate him by violence. 
Shortly afterward he was removed to the lovely castle of 
Gripsholm, where he had spent some of the happiest days of 
his youth, and where he once upon a time held his brother 
John imprisoned. At Gripsholm there is a gloomy duDgeon 
which is said to have served as the prison of King Eric, but 
this is not authentic. Eric was treated comparatively well 
while at Gripsholm, enjoying the company of his family, a 
good table and plenty of servants. The recording books of 
the castle from this period speak of "the court of King 
Eric." King John was, in the meantime, irritated by Rus- 
sian hostilities and intrigues, the old supporters of Eric join- 
ing in the latter. The appeals of Duke Charles for the 
improvement of the condition of his poor imprisoned 
brother roused the suspicion of the king, who fostered da rk 
plots against the prisoner. Eric was removed from Grips- 
holm and its pleasant associations, separated from his fam- 
ily and put in hard prison at Westeros. The warders re- 
ceived instructions to take his life if necessary. The state 
council and the archbishop sanctioned this order of the king. 
The last prison of the unhappy King Eric was CErbyhus, 
where he suddenly died, exactly at a time when King John's 



172 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

fears of a revolt had reached a climax. Humors that Eric 
had been poisoned were current, and Duke Charles also gave 
utterance of his belief that such was the case. In spite of 
the wars, cruelty and evil deeds of King Eric XIV., the 
Swedish people of his time had a good deal of devotion for 
him and his faithful consort. The country enjoyed good 
years during his reign and profited by the wise measures 
of his father. 

Gustavus, the son of Eric XIV. and Carin Monsdotter, 
was born, in 1568, at Nykceping. When Queen Carin was 
separated from her imprisoned consort, her children, Gus- 
tavus and Sigrid, followed her to Finland, where she re- 
sided at Abo. In 1575 the young prince was harshly taken 
away from his mother, at the command of the state council, 
and sent to Prussia. The jealous and uneasy King John 
made him the subject of cruel persecutions. In spite of these 
he received a fine education, and is known to have embraced 
the Catholic religion. He was kindly received by King Sig- 
ismund of Poland, his cousin, at whose coronation in Cracow 
he is said to have been present, in the disguise of a beggar. 
A relation of intimate friendship existed between the out- 
lawed prince and Emperor Rudolph of Austria, both of 
whom were devoted to the study of alchemy. King John 
refused to listen to the appeals for grace and support which 
Gustavus repeatedly made to him. Gustavus was not al- 
lowed to see his mother until the year of 1596, when the 
two had a touching meeting at Reval. He later made his 
home in Thorn, but left for Russia, in 1600, upon an invi- 
tation from Czar Boris. He was received in Moscow as a 
reigning prince; but when he refused to appear as a pre- 
tender to the Swedish throne, he was imprisoned. At the 
fall of Boris, Gustavus was set free, but again put in prison 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 173 

by Dimitri. At the fall of the latter, in 1607, Gustavus once 
more regained his liberty, but died in Casijn, in the same 
year. This unhappy Gustavus Ericsson Vasa was a man of 
fine erudition and pure morals. He was a dreamer and of a 
sensitive disposition, being an ardent Catholic and fondly 
devoted to the country which had outlawed him. 

Sigrid Vasa, the daughter of Eric XIV., was twice mar- 
ried to members of the Swedish nobility. Ake Henricsson 
Tott, her son of the first marriage, was a distinguished war- 
rior in the times of Gustavus II. Adolphus. Queen Carin 
died, in 1612, beloved and highly respected, at the beautiful 
estate of Liuksiala in Finland, given her in fief by King 
John. 

John III. succeeded Eric, without sharing his power 
with his younger brother Charles, as he had promised. 
John was as learned and highly talented as Eric, and as 
vain, restless and unreliable. But while Eric was a mystic 
and a sceptic by turns, John was a Catholic, or leaning to- 
ward Catholicism, and a hypocrite who, under the pretence of 
meekness and piety, tried to hide his vanity, bad temper 
and utter selfishness. Like Gustavus I. and all his other 
sons, John was devoted to the fine arts, particularly to archi- 
tecture, with an ardor that reached the vehemence of a pas- 
sion. He planned a vast number of churches and castles, 
which he completed, utterly regardless of cost. The Swed- 
ish Castle Renaissance which was established by John and 
his brothers is influenced by contemporary Flemish art, 
severe and majestic in outline, graceful and profuse in in- 
terior decoration. Good specimens of it were the earlier 
castles of Stockholm and Svartsjoe, the castle of Vadstena 
remains so and, to a great extent, the beautiful and mem- 
orable castle of Gripsholm. 



J 74 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

At his coronation, John issued hereditary privileges to 
the nobility. Russtjenst became no longer essential. Legal 
offices were preserved for the nobles, the king's supreme 
court being abandoned. John's policy was to win the sup- 
port of the aristocracy against Charles, who, indignant and 
sulky, kept within his duchy, consisting of the provinces of 
Scedermanland and Vermland, with the town of CErebro in 
addition. 

In 1570, an unsatisfactory peace was made with Den- 
mark, Sweden ceding all the Norwegian and Danish terri- 
tory in her possession, together with the island of Gothland, 
and agreeing to pay something like one hundred and fifty 
thousand dollars for the return of Elfsborg, held by the 
Danes. A friendly relation to hostile Poland commenced 
with John's reign, but a long and bloody war with Russia 
began in 1570. The Russians tried repeatedly, but in vain, 
to capture Reval, plundering and killing the population of 
Esthonia, who remained faithful to Swedish rule. Henric 
Horn and Clas Tott won laurels for their heroic deeds, while 
the war was changed into more modern methods and to a 
successful issue by the Swedish general Pontus de la Gardie, 
who captured the provinces Keksholm and Ingermanland 
and the town of Narva. 

John III. had set two goals for his ambition : to return the 
Swedish church to Catholicism and to make his son Sigis- 
mund king of Poland. The latter he reached at the death 
of King Stephan in 1589, Sigismund succeeding him upon 
the throne. The former ambition John never attained, 
after years of stubborn and unreasonable perseverance giv- 
ing up this pet idea. John made some attempts to bring 
order in the confused conditions of the church, but left it in 
a worse state of confusion than he found it. The crown and 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 175 

the aristocracy had deprived the church of nearly all its 
property and withheld its income from it. Archbishop 
Lauren tins Petri complained of the miserable state of 
things, the ministers often being useless wretches and the 
service in some churches impossible to uphold for sheer lack 
of money. In 1572 the ecclesiastical matters were arranged 
at a meeting in Upsala, when a new church law was intro- 
duced, demanding higher qualifications for the ministers, 
who were to be elected by their congregations, and enforc- 
ing a school law. Laurentius Petri died in 1573 and was 
succeeded by Laurentius Petri Gothus. The new arch- 
bishop willingly subscribed to a set of rules, laid before 
him by the king, which reintroduced monasteries, worship 
of saints and the ceremonies of the Roman church. Jesuits 
were invited to the country, but met with little encourage- 
ment from the people. The very climax of John's reaction- 
ary movements was formed by the introduction of his ritual, 
Liturgia, which was nothing else than an adaptation of the 
Catholic ritual. It was accepted by the Riksdag of 1577, 
but Charles refused to accept it for his duchy. The king 
had many conflicts with his brother, the latter always giv- 
ing in to his wishes, except on this point. Ministers and 
university professors who refused to conform to the new 
ritual, or attacked it, were sheltered by the duke and, in 
many instances, given high offices. The king grew angry, 
but the duke remained firm and unyielding. When Queen 
Catherine died, in 1583, John's Catholic fervor suffered a 
relapse, and ceased altogether after his marriage to young 
Protestant Gunilla Bielke, in the following year. He stub- 
bornly stuck to his Liturgia for some time yet, but exiled 
the Jesuits, and dismissed with contumely ministers who 
had joined the Roman Church. During the last years of 



176 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

his reign, he said it was best to leave everybody a free 
choice in religious matters, regretting his Liturgia — which 
he once considered the gem of his own theological system 
— because it had caused so much trouble and confusion. 

Sweden suffered a great deal through the slack and 
unsteady government of King John. He spent unreason- 
able sums on his court and his craze for architectural mar- 
vels, while always short of funds for the necessities of war 
and internal improvements. Commerce and industries suf- 
fered and were brought to a standstill by dearth, hunger and 
pest. The population decreased; the towns were made 
bankrupt and many farms abandoned. Bad and greedy 
officials and the recommencing war with Russia increased 
the evils. After unsuccessful attempts to have his son leave 
Poland, where he had met with many difficulties, John en- 
tered into more intimate relations with his brother, who 
came to wield a beneficial influence on the government. 
John III. died 1592, malcontent and tired of life, his death 
being little regretted by the people. 

One of the most famous love episodes of Sweden dates 
from the reign of John III. It has no bearing upon the 
affairs of state, but is not devoid of value as an illustration 
of the history of civilization, giving us a glimpse of the pri- 
vate life of the nobles of that period and the standard of 
morals of their lives. The episode is told by Countess Anne 
Baner in a manuscript by her hand with the title : "In the 
following manner my blessed mother's sister, Lady Sigrid 
Sture, lady of Salestad and Geddeholm, related what took 
place when Lord Eric Gustafson Stenbock carried away 
our blessed mother's sister, Magdalen Sture, from Hcern- 
ingsholm." 

The dowager-countess, Martha Sture, resided at the cats- 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 177 

tie of Hoerningsholm, enlarged to a four-story structure and 
fortified with four corner towers by her consort. She was 
a sister of Queen Margaret, the second queen of Gustavus 
I., and was married to the renounced lover of that sister, 
Count Svante Sture. The countess was called "King Mar- 
tha," partly because of her stern power and great authority, 
partly because it was known to have been her ambition to 
see her husband's family grace the throne of a country 
which their forefathers had ruled as uncrowned kings. She 
had lived to see her husband and two sons killed by the 
insane Eric XIV., but she had yet two sons who would 
carry high the glorious name, on which there was not a 
stain of any kind. There were five daughters, Sigrid and 
Anne, married to members of the influential Bielke family, 
and Magdalen, Margaret and Christine, as yet unmarried. 
There was another young lady at Hoerningsholm, besides 
the daughters, the little Princess Sigrid Vasa, the daughter 
of King Eric XIV. and Carin Monsdotter, who had received 
a home with the stern "King Martha" while her mother 
was following the tracks of the deposed monarch from 
prison to prison. 

Between Magdalen Sture and Lord Eric Stenbock a pas- 
sionate love sprang up. Lord Eric was a very fine young 
man, of an influential family and the brother of the queen- 
dowager, Catherine, third consort of Gustavus I. But, un- 
fortunately, he was the nephew of Countess Martha, and, 
as a cousin of Magdalen, considered to be too closely related 
to her to make a marriage possible. Countess Martha was 
unwilling to listen to any appeals, and she was strengthened 
in her resolution by the old Archbishop Laurentius Petri, 
who still held the same opinions as when he, once upon a 
time, refused to grant his consent to a marriage between 



178 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

King Gustavus I. and young Lord Eric's sister, because 
she was a niece of Queen Margaret. The years passed by, 
but no change came in the stubborn resistance of "King 
Martha." Christmas eve of 1573, Lord Eric visited Hcern- 
ingsholm to remain until New Year. He brought with him 
costly presents which he offered as New Year's gifts to 
Countess Martha, her daughters, chaplain and servants. 
He left to return on Palm Sunday with his sister Cecilia, 
the wife of Count Gustavus Tre Rosor. One morning a few 
days later, Lady Sigrid Bielke, who was visiting her moth- 
er, entered the so-called rotunda, a large room in one of the 
towers which Countess Martha and her daughters used as 
sleeping apartment. She was surprised to find her sister 
Magdalen kneeling and in tears. Lady Sigrid greeted her : 
"God bless you, you have a good deed in mind!" "God 
grant it were good," answered Magdalen, rising. "Cer- 
tainly it is good to make one's prayers amid tears," Sigrid 
said. Magdalen caught the hands of her sister and said: 
"My darling sister, if all the rest forsake me, you will not 
turn away your faithful heart from me." Sigrid found the 
words and emotion of her sister strange, but did not suspect 
anything. "Why do you use such words to me?" she an- 
swered. "I do not believe that you are going to make an 
evil-doer out of yourself; there are none in the Sture family 
who have carried themselves in a way to make us turn our 
hearts away from them." Tears came again to the eyes 
of Magdalen, but Sigrid was called into an interior room by 
her mother. Magdalen went to play with one of her little 
nieces, when Lord Eric entered. "Dear lady," he said, 
"would you like to see the horse that I have given you? 
It is now waiting in the court." Magdalen rose and left, 
escorted by her cousin. They met two of the women of the 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 179 

household, whom Eric commanded to follow them. A horse 
and sleigh stood in the vaulted entrance. Magdalen was 
placed between the two servants, while Eric took his position 
back of them on the runners, holding the reins. In the castle 
court they met the chaplain and several of the servants, who 
thought it a pleasure ride and let them pass. When they 
rode down on the frozen lake, the two servants in the sleigh 
grasped the importance of the situation for the first time, 
and commenced praying Lady Magdalen to return. Lord 
Eric silenced them by displaying his short musket. A few 
moments later they were surrounded by a force of one hun- 
dred men on horseback, who formed an escort. They were 
a loan to Lord Eric by Duke Charles. 

The excitement at Hoerningsholm was great when the 
elopement was discovered. Margaret Sture happened to 
look through the window at the moment when the sleigh 
reached the lake. At her outcry Countess Martha and 
Sigrid joined her. The old countess fainted on the stairs 
when making for the court, and Sigrid was ordered to fol- 
low up the eloping couple. Countess Cecilia found her aunt 
on the stairs and hastened to assure her of the mortification 
that she felt at the daring and unsuspected deed of her 
brother, also expressing some surprise at the bad manner 
in which it was accepted. But then the old countess be- 
came wroth, exclaiming: "Go to the devil, and may God 
punish both you and your brother! And if you have any 
part in his scheme of robbing me of my dear child, be- 
take yourself after him, so that no shame or dishonor may 
happen." Countess Cecilia hastened to her sleigh and 
reached Svserdsbro, where her brother was stopping, ahead 
of Sigrid. 

When Lady Sigrid arrived at Svserdsbro, she was ad- 



180 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

mitted through the lines of soldiers only after some diffi- 
culty, finding tailors and seamsters busy cutting and sewing 
precious stuffs for clothing for Lady Magdalen and her ser- 
vants, "for she left with uncovered head such as she went 
and stood in her mother's house." Sigrid tried to persuade 
her sister to return to her mother, who iu her great sorrow 
was willing to forgive all if she only came back. Magdalen 
sat silent for a long time. Finally she said: "If you can 
vouchsafe me, that the lady, my mother, will grant that 
we shall belong to each other, since I have so dearly pledged 
myself to him, I shall return." This Sigrid could not do, 
and Magdalen added, weeping sorely: "The last complica- 
tion is then as bad as the first." Lord Eric entered with 
his sister Cecilia. When Sigrid asked where he intended 
to bring Magdalen, he answered: "To Visingsce, to the 
Countess Beatrix, my sister, where she shall remain until we 
obtain the consent to marry of the lady, her mother." It 
was arranged that Cecilia should accompany Magdalen, and 
Sigrid try her best to win her mother's consent. Magdalen 
sent home to her mother a piece of horn of the fabulous 
unicorn; "the only thing I have carried with me from my 
father's house," she added. This horn, which really was 
taken from the incisor of the narwhal, was in those days 
generally thought to be authentic and of miraculous power. 
Countess Martha was, in her grief and dismay, taken ill. 
She soon gathered strength enough to write to King John, 
her nephew, pleading her cause. King John at once took 
action in the matter, calling Lord Eric to account, and issu- 
ing a command to all ministers of the kingdom, prohibiting 
them to unite in marriage the two cousins. Eric Stenbock 
was on his way to Stockholm when he received the order 
of the king. Upon his arrival at the capital, he was impris* 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 181 

oned and deprived of all his offices. But Lord Eric had 
powerful friends in Duke Charles and the Stenbock family. 
As the king himself did not wish to be without his service, 
he was soon set free and reinstalled in his offices. He suc- 
ceeded in obtaining the goodwill of the whole Sture family, 
but "King Martha" remained irreconcilable. More than 
a year had passed since the elopement. One day Lord Eric 
suddenly appeared at the castle of Visingsoe. He made, 
with Magdalen and his aunt, Lady Anne, a journey into 
the province of Halland, where a Danish minister joined the 
two cousins in marriage. The wedding was celebrated 
at the home of Eric's father, Baron Gustavus Stenbock 
of Torpa. But Lady Magdalen was not happy. She 
grieved because of her mother's hostile attitude, and con- 
tinued to dress in black colors, as she had done ever since 
she left her mother. Duke Charles, the queen- dowager, 
the royal princesses, and all the members of the state coun- 
cil, yea, the king himself, wrote letters to the indignant 
countess, whose ire was rather increased than diminished 
thereby. 

Finally, after another year and a half, "King Martha** 
gave in to the tears and prayers of her daughters. Lady 
Magdalen returned to Hcerningsholm after three years of 
absence. She was not allowed to come up to the castle 
at first, but had to dwell in the building occupied by the 
baths. As the winter was approaching, and Lady Mag- 
dalen was soon to give life to a child, her brothers and sis- 
ters prevailed upon their mother to receive Lord Eric and 
his wife at the castle. The event was arranged in a con- 
spicuous way. Countess Martha was seated in the place 
of honor in the great hall of the castle, surrounded by her 
daughters and sons-in-law, when Lord Eric entered with 



182 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

Magdalen. When the mother saw her pale and thin feat- 
ures, she was moved to tears, exclaiming: "Thou unhappy- 
child !" Magdalen approached her on her knees, and the 
countess embraced her, stammering her forgiveness between 
tears. Magdalen remained at the castle, where she bore her 
husband a son, who was called Gustavus. Lady Martha 
invited the king, the duke and the princesses to be present 
at the baptism, at the same time granting Magdalen an 
equal share of inheritance with the other daughters. Lady 
Magdalen continued to dress in mourning as a self-imposed 
punishment for her disobedience to her mother. One day 
she was preparing to leave for a wedding, when her mother 
asked her the reason why she dressed thus. When "King 
Martha" learned why, she took a costly cross of diamonds 
intended for the bride and placed it on her daughter's 
breast, telling her to put aside her black dresses. From 
that day joy and happiness seemed to return to Lady Mag- 
dalen, who commenced to put on lighter colors and to wear 
diamonds. Of Magdalen Stenbock — a child of these Stures, 
who so often had protected and preserved Sweden— Count 
Magnus Stenbock was a lineal descendant, he who daring 
the reign of Charles XII. saved his country in the hour of 
its greatest peril and distress. 

Sigismund, the son and successor of John III., was not 
apt to become more popular than his father. Born at the 
pleasant prison of Gripsholm, which yet was a prison, he was 
of a cold, unsympathetic disposition, a king of few words 
and hard to approach. At John's death, Sigismund was 
twenty-six years of age and had reigned several years in 
Poland. Charles stepped to the front as the head of the 
government until Sigismund' s arrival. 

The Protestants, fearing the worst from their new Cath- 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 183 

olic king, decided to take firm and early action. The duke 
ordered a Riksdag at Upsala .in February, 1593, the delib- 
erations being held by the clergy alone. The Liturgia was 
abolished with the majority of Catholic church ceremonies 5 
Luther's catechisms, L. Petri's ritual, church visita,tions 9 
etc., being reintroduced. Abraham Angermannus was 
elected archbishop, and decision made for the re-establish- 
ment of the Upsala University. The duke had not been 
present at the deliberations, and appeared displeased because 
not consulted. He, who was secretly accused of being a 
Calvinist, pointed out more Catholic ceremonies to be abol- 
ished, whereupon the decisions won the sanction of the duke, 
the state council and the bishops. By this act the Lutheran 
Church was re-established, the Augsburgian Confession 
being laid down by the meeting as its corner-stone. "When 
this action had been taken, the chairman, Mcolaus Both- 
niensis, a young Upsala professor, exclaimed : ' ' Now Sweden 
has become one man, and we all have one God." 

In August, 1593, King Sigismund arrived in Sweden, 
surrounded by Jesuits and Polish nobles, and with a sum 
of money wherewith to pay the expenses of a Catholic 
revival. To the demands made to sign the decisions of the 
Upsala meeting he gave a flat refusal. The conditions in 
Stockholm grew perilous, Jesuits and Lutheran ministers 
preaching denouncements upon each other in the churches 
and conflicts between the Polish troops and the populace 
taking place. In January, 1594, Sigismund, accompanied 
by the state councillors and the members of the Riksdag, 
came to Upsala for his father's funeral and his own corona- 
tion. Duke Charles arrived with 3,000 men, whom he quar- 
tered in the neighborhood. He dismissed the papal legate, 
Malaspina, and his Jesuits from the funeral procession, be- 



184 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

fore it entered the cathedral, and told the king, in behalf 
of all, that no coronation would take place before the con- 
fessional liberty of the Lutheran Church was confirmed. 
The Estates declared themselves ready to sacrifice their lives 
for the pure faith. The king still refused his sanction, 
whereupon the duke replied that the Riksdag would be dis- 
missed within twenty-four hours if he insisted. Sigismund 
gave in, upon the advice of the Jesuits, who told him that 
pledges to Lutherans were not binding. Sigismund was 
crowned and returned suddenly to Poland. 

The king had left matters in an unsatisfactory condition, 
placing six governors with great authority in various dis- 
tricts, but leaving the government to be conducted by the 
duke and the state council in common. This little pleased 
the energetic Charles, who soon called a Riksdag at Sceder- 
koeping, in 1595, forcing the councillors to sanction this act 
and follow him to the Riksdag. In Finland, the governor, 
Clas Fleming, had tried to have a peace agreement with 
Russia postponed as an excuse to keep the navy and army 
at his disposal in the interest of the king. At Scederkcep- 
ing, Charles had himself chosen regent, the last vestige 
of Catholicism abolished, and the punishment of Fleming 
decided on. In consequence, the Catholics were dealt with 
in a merciless way through the instigation of the arch- 
bishop, whom the duke called an executioner on account 
of his recklessness. The convent of Vadstena was closed, 
its eleven nuns scattered and its property confiscated. In 
Finland a bloody revolt against the oppression of Fleming 
cost 11,000 people their lives. It was called the "War 
of Clubs," on account of the rude weapons used by the 
peasants. The state council refused to consent to Fleming's 
punishment, whereupon the duke suddenly resigned. But 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 185 

he convoked a Riksdag at Arboga, in 1597, at which the 
councillors and nobles were absent, also the burghers. The 
peasants and clergy were abundantly represented and 
cheered the propositions of the duke to the echo. It was 
then decided that the king should be asked to return, until 
which event the duke was to remain regent, and that peace 
should be restored in Finland. Fleming died in the mean- 
time and was succeeded by Arvid Stolarm, who also was one 
of the duke's enemies. The Riksdag at Arboga was the 
first in the deliberations of which the state council had not 
taken a part. The councillors were disposed to punish the 
duke; but, not agreeing as to means, they left the country 
to seek the king. 

King Sigismund arrived in the summer of 1598 with an 
army of 5,000 Poles, gathering a good deal of strength by 
reinforcements from Gothaland. The duke had his strong- 
hold in Svealand, the Dalecarlians rising to join him. The 
Uplanders warded off an attempt made by Stolarm to land 
with his army; they were led by Mcolaus Bothniensis, the 
Upsala professor, who called his exploit "a crusade." The 
two princes met in East Gothland, near Stegeborg. The 
duke and his peasant army were surrounded by the king's 
cavalry, and would have been doomed if not for the out- 
cry of one of the king's followers that his subjects would 
be killed on either side. The king gave order to stop the 
attack, feeling pity at the sight. The duke was deeply 
moved by this act and offered to leave the land with his 
family. But the deliberations which followed were with- 
out result. 

On the 25th of September a battle was fought at 
Stongebro, near Linkceping, ending in the defeat of the 
royal army. An armistice followed. The conditions of 



186 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

peace were that the king should remain in Sweden, dismiss- 
ing his foreign troops, and take charge of the government. 
No one should be punished except five of the nobles, to be 
placed before a jury of ambassadors. The king agreed 
to the conditions, but soon left Sweden never to return. A 
meeting of nobles and clergymen, in 1599, accepted him 
as reigning king if willing to return within four months. 
In July, a Riksdag was called at Stockholm, which declared 
Sigismund dethroned and his son Vladislav king if sent 
to Sweden to be educated in the Lutheran faith. Sigis- 
mund took no heed of these stipulations, planning to regain 
his throne by force. 

Charles followed up the punishment with such unprece- 
dented severity that it has left a stain upon his memory, 
Three nobles were beheaded after Kalmar was taken, and 
proceeding to. Finland, the duke applied capital punishment 
to a wide extent, in more than twenty cases at Abo alone. 
At a Riksdag in Linkceping, in 1600, the duke appeared as 
an accuser against the five imprisoned nobles and several 
others, eight state councillors being among them. The 
accused, thirteen in number, were sentenced to death for 
high treason, but the majority were pardoned upon confes- 
sion of guilt. The councillors Gustavus Baner, Eric Sparre, 
Sten Baner and Ture Bielke were beheaded. They were all 
men of learning and great ability, who had faithfully served 
their king. During John's reign they had already suffered 
years of imprisonment for intrigues against a hereditary 
kingdom and a strong government. 

Charles IX. was chosen king at the bloody Riksdag of 
Linkceping, and his son Gustavus Adolphus heir-apparent. 
The hereditary rights of Duke John, second son of John 
III., were acknowledged, and a duchy, consisting of East 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 187 

Gothland and Leckoe Castle, granted him; but he was 
passed over as too young and too closely related to Sigis- 
mund. Measures to strengthen the financial administration 
and the army were passed. 

Sigismund prepared, by alliances with Catholic powers, 
to gather support, Charles turning to England and France 
for the same purpose. A conflict was unavoidable, and 
Charles decided to invade the disputed province of Livonia, 
which he captured, only to be ousted by the Polish general, 
Zamoisky. The castle of Volmar was long and heroically 
defended by the Swedes under Jacob de la Gardie, a son of 
General Pontus, and Charles Gyllenhielm, an illegitimate 
son of Charles IX. After their surrender the former re- 
ceived for five years a tolerable treatment, the latter a most 
severe one for twelve years. After attempts to place con- 
ditions on a better footing in Finland, where the peasants 
had long suffered through aristocratic oppression, Charles 
increased the army still further and invaded Livonia once 
more, in 1604. He met with a crushing defeat at Kerkholm, 
close by Riga, at the hands of the Pole, Chodkiewitz, 
losing 9,000 men. But the Poles did not understand how 
to use their victory, and the centre of the conflict changed 
to Russia. 

On Russian territory, the troops of Sigismund and 
Charles were to meet. The line of Rurik became extinct 
in 1598, its last descendant, Dimitri, being murdered. 
Great complications ensued with usurpers and two "false 
Dimitris" in succession. Sigismund supported the false 
Dimitris in order to gain ground and place the royal line 
of Vasa upon the throne of Russia after that of Rurik. 
Charles sided with Vassili Schuisky against the second false 
Dimitri. In 1607 an agreement was made that Sweden, 



188 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

upon the receipt of the province of Kexholm, should send 
an army to Russia to support Czar Vassili. In 1609, a 
small Swedish army, consisting of Swedes, Finns and some 
hired troops, entered Russia, under command of Jacob de 
la Gardie. It was received at Novgorod with the blaze 
of cannon and tolling of church bells. A victory was won 
at Tver over the pretender, but further progress was im- 
peded by mutiny among the hired troops, the stubborn 
Finns returning home. With his 1,200 faithful Swedes, 
reinforced by hired troops to 5,000, De la Gardie made a 
daring march eastward to Moscow, scaring away the Polish 
army, attacking it and making a triumphant entry into the 
Russian capital. Sigismund was at Smolensk, and met 
De la Gardie at Klusina, winning the battle on account of 
renewed mutiny of the hired troops in the Swedish army. 
De la Gardie was given free leave with 400 men, upon 
pledge not to support Czar Vassili, and later captured the 
promised Kexholm, while Sigismund's son Vladislav for 
a short time became czar of Russia. 

Although the short reign of Charles IX. was filled with 
continual warfare, the king never for a moment lost interest 
in the peaceful development of the country. He continued 
his father's work in furthering the mining industry, and 
tried to build up the commerce and trade relations. He 
founded the city of Gothenburg, on the western coast, in 
the island of Hising, opposite Elfsborg, also founding the 
towns of Karlstad, Christinehamn, Mariestad and Philip- 
stad. The aristocracy looked upon his administration with 
coldness. It received sanction of the privileges granted by 
John III., but nothing more, except in return for additional 
russtjenst. The peasants were his favorites and he was 
surnamed the " Peasant King." To the Church, Charles 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 189 

stood in a good relation, supporting its re-established Ref- 
ormation with his whole authority. Also the University 
had in him a patron, although he severely criticised the 
too conservative spirit in both, exchanging a series of pam- 
phlets with the archbishop on theological questions, firm 
in his Calvinistic tendencies. To make the government 
stronger it was stipulated that four members of the state 
council were always to hold the four principal offices, with 
the titles of drotsete, kansler (chancellor), admiral and treas- 
urer. The greatest economy was enforced at court and 
throughout the whole system of government, various minor 
country offices being established for the enforcement of 
order, justice and economy. The king was liberal only 
with severe orders and harsh words, the artistic tendencies 
of his youth succumbing to the cruel necessities of his 
reign. 

In private he was as severe as in public life. His first 
consort, Maria of the Palatinate-Zweibrucken, had a quiet- 
ing influence upon him, but the second, Christine of Hol- 
stein, stern and sharp like the king, strengthened the harsh- 
ness and violence of his disposition. During the last years 
of his reign, Charles gave his attention to the critical Eu- 
ropean situation, desiring to join the Netherlands, England, 
France and the Protestant German princes into an alliance 
against the forming Catholic league. This man, so assured 
of his power to reign and so unscrupulous as to his means, 
was very careful not to do any act of importance without 
the sanction of his people, and for a long time refused to be 
called king. In 1604 he agreed to accept that name, but 
was in 1606 ready to cede it to Duke John. Still, after his 
coronation he admitted the hereditary right of his nephew, 
who was a good-natured man without the qualifications 



190 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

of a ruler. At the Riksdag of Norr keeping, in 1604, the 
crown was made hereditary among the descendants of 
Charles, also in the female line, provided that the monarch 
confessed the Lutheran faith and had not accepted the gov- 
ernment of, or residence in, any other country. 

The stress placed upon Charles was greater than his 
originally strong health could carry. In 1609 he suffered a 

stroke of paralysis, which deprived him of his full power of 
speech. He still stood firm at the head of the government, 
with Prince Gustavus Adolphus, now sixteen years of age, 
at his side, who took part in the affairs of State and spoke 
for the paralytic king. The young and ambitious Christian 
IV. of Denmark thought that the opportune moment was 
come to turn down the rising power of Sweden. He de- 
clared war, in April, 1611, in spite of the efforts made by 
King Charles to avoid the conflict, pointing to Germany, 
where their joined forces would be needed. Christian cap- 
tured the town of Kalmar, while its castle withstood his 
attacks, being handed over to him by treason. In his wrath 
and disgust, Charles sent word to Christian to meet him 
in a duel face to face, which the latter refused to do in a 
letter of abusive contempt. Gustavus Adolphus had made 
a dash into Bleking, capturing the store of provisions at 
Christianopel. In the autumn, the war came to a tem- 
porary standstill. 

Charles started for Stockholm from Kalmar, but was 
taken ill during the journey and died at Nykceping, October 
11, 1611, surrounded by his sons and councillors. To his 
death-bed came the news that Jacob de la Gardie had cap- 
tured the important city of Novgorod, and that the Russians 
offered the crown to either of his sons, Gustavus Adolphus 
or Charles Philip. With Charles died the only worthy son 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 191 

of Gustavus I. Vasa. In strength of intellect and stern 
power, he stands first among Swedish rulers. Devoted 
to the work of his great father, he educated the Swedish 
people, through hardships and sacrifices, to its political 
grandeur. 




CHAPTER X 

Period of Political Grandeur — Gustavus II. Adolphus 

USTAVUS II. ADOLPHUS is the greatest figure 
of Swedish history, revered and beloved as one of 
the noblest of heroes, a genius in whom the quali- 
ties of the great statesman and warrior were blended with 
the faith of a man ready to sacrifice his life for the loftiest 
of causes-— religious liberty. Gustavus Adolphus was, by 
his own triumphant deeds and through his school of disci- 
pline, which turned out men worthy to follow up his work, 
destined to bring his country up to the fulfilment of its 
mission in the history of human progress, and to open for 
it an era of glory and political grandeur which its limited 
resources made it impossible to preserve, but which was 
fruitful of results for its later cultural evolution. 

The secret of Sweden's success in solving the stupendous 
conflict between Catholicism and Protestantism, between 
reaction and progress, rested in the fact that this little 
country was eminently ready to wage a war for religious 
liberty. It had been more perfectly rejuvenated by the 
spirit of Protestantism than had, at the time, any other 
country. The mediaeval state, completed later in Sweden 
than on the continent, also gave way there sooner and more 
completely than elsewhere. The yeomanry, never fully 

suppressed, had preserved its old spirit of independence* 
(192) 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 193 

fostered and guided by patriotic leaders of the nobility, 
with or without a crown. The population was suffering, 
hungering, bleeding, but free, indomitable, and devoted to 
its once more hereditary kings of Swedish birth and to 
their new faith, which had made strong in them their old 
individuality of views and life. 

When Gustavus Adolphus ascended the throne, the 
country was in the greatest peril and distress, and had 
many a lesson to learn before entering the universal con- 
flict of the Thirty Years' War. 

Gustavus Adolphus was born, Dec. 9, 1594, at the castle 
of Stockholm. When six years old, he followed his father 
to devastated Finland, returning through Norrland, for the 
settlement and future of which territory great plans were 
made. At ten, he was ordered to be present at the delib- 
erations of the state council; at thirteen, he received peti- 
tions and complaints, rectifying wrongs and soothing suffer- 
ing. His father said of him, in speaking of the fulfilment 
of great works, placing his hand on the curly blond head : 
li Ille faciei." The prince received a severe and carefully 
supervised education, led by Johan Skytte. He acquired 
knowledge of a considerable number of languages, probably 
all in a mechanical way, except the Swedish and German, 
with both of which he was made equally and thoroughly 
familiar, speaking and writing the latter language with 
greater ease and perfection than the emperor Ferdinand, 
or Maximilian of Bavaria. In the sciences of economics 
and war he was well read, himself inaugurating novel 
theories in both. In him the best traits of the Yasa dy- 
nasty were admirably blended and enlarged. He possessed 
an acute intellect, far-reaching views of almost prophetic 

discernment, a mastery and patience in detail, and an in- 

xx 9 



194 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

domitable strength of will. To the ceaseless and pains- 
taking care of the welfare of his subjects, characteristic 
of his father and grandfather, were in him added a har- 
mony of endowment and a gentleness of disposition which 
made him their superior. In him the turbulent blood of 
the Vasas was held in noble self-restraint. After his rare 
outbursts of passion, he made good his faults in a most 
royal manner. His youth was not without the temptations 
which beset all richly endowed natures, but they were van- 
quished as he grew up to the importance of his grand mis- 
sion. He stood in the paternal attitude to his people so 
becoming to his grandfather, but lacked the fiery demo- 
cratic tendencies and the sympathy for the untitled, unpre- 
tentious and lowly, so strong in his stern father. To his 
relatives he was as gentle as to his subjects, treating his 
resolute and ambitious mother, Christine of Holstein-Got- 
torp, with love and respect; on her demand sacrificing the 
love of his youth and intended bride, Ebba Brahe, who 
became the consort of victorious Jacob de la Gardie. Also 
to his brother Charles Philip he stood in an exemplary 
relation ; but firmly refused to grant him privileges for his 
duchy of Vermland which could be injurious to the country 
at large. 

Gustavus Adolphus was a man of commanding pres- 
ence, tall and of a heavy frame. The color of his face was 
clear and light, his eyes blue, his hair and beard blond. 
Foreign contemporary authors called him "the golden king 
of the North." He carried his head high, and his open, 
frank eye, and the clear voice of manly resonance, gave 
added charm to his noble appearance. Gustavus Adolphus 
possessed a majestic dignity of bearing coupled with the 
unfeigned kindness of a noble heart. 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 195 

Charles IX. had left his son the Danish war as an in- 
heritance. It was carried on in the provinces of the fron- 
tiers, and consisted chiefly in small conflicts, which caused 
fatigue and detriment without being decisive. The Danes 
entered the interior of Smaland during the first days of the 
year 1612. Gustavus Adolphus, in his turn, moved from 
the fort of Ryssby into the province of Scania, destroying 
by fire the town of Vse and several castles belonging to the 
wealthy nobility. During a smaller conflict which then 
took place, Gustavus Adolphus was in imminent danger 
of his life. 

The Swedes had made a camp for themselves at the 
cemetery of Vittsjce, when suddenly surprised by a force 
of Danish cavalry. The Swedes fought with determina- 
tioD, but found it necessary to leave their camp. They 
took a firm stand on the frozen waters of the adjoining lake, 
but were forced to leave that position also. A tumult en- 
sued, during which the ice gave way on the spot where the 
king found himself, for the moment, alone and without an 
escort. Per Baner, a son of Gustavus Baner, who was 
executed at Linkoeping at the command of Charles IX., 
perceived the king in the moment of greatest danger, and 
hastened with Thomas Larsson, a trooper from Upland, 
to rescue him. When in safety, the king at once unbuckled 
his silver belt, and, handing it to the trooper, said: "I 
shall remember thee with a piece of bread, which neither 
thou nor thy children shall ever find lacking. " Thomas 
Larsson received in the following year a farm in the prov- 
ince of Westmanland, which has remained in the possession 
of his descendants to this very day. Per BaneY received 
in fief the estates which had been in the possession of his 
uncle, Sten Baner, also executed at Linkoeping, and rose 



196 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

to the dignity of a state councillor during the minority of 
Queen Ohristine. 

It was the ambition of Christian IV. of Denmark to cut 
Sweden oft from any communication with the North Sea. 
As Bohuslaen and Halland both were parts of the Danish do- 
minion, there was only the small strip of territory surround- 
ing the mouth of the Gotha River to conquer. The island 
of Hising constituted the larger part of it, and was the site 
of the new town of Gothenburg, which was defended by the 
fortress of Elfsborg. The town of New Loedoese was sit- 
uated on the opposite shore, some few miles up the river, 
defended by the fort of Gullberg. The Danish king ap- 
proached Gullberg from Bonus, having with him a smaller 
force, which he considered sufficient in numbers. Gullberg 
was only a poor little nest, but it was valiantly defended 
by Morten Krakow and his wife, the stanch Lady Emer- 
entia Pauli. One day the Danes made a violent attack. 
The ladders which they placed against the walls were 
crushed by heavy beams which the Swedes let fall down 
on them. In spite of this, the Danes succeeded in forcing 
the gates of the place. The position was a critical one for 
the Swedes. The commander had met with an accident 
and was unable to lead the defence. But Lady Emerentia 
resolved to take the command. She gave orders to the 
wives of the soldiers to fill up the vaulted passage of the 
gates with barrels, washtubs, timber, etc. When the Danes 
stormed on in a compact body, they were received by a 
downfall of scalding-hot lye, which the women kept pouring 
down on them from behind their barricade. The daughter 
of Lady Emerentia thus graphically describes the effect: 
"They lay in the vault and around the gates like scalded 
hogs." Lady Emerentia had placed two pieces of artillery 



HISTOEY OF SWEDEN 197 

on the top of a small building fronting the gates. They 
were loaded with broken horseshoes and the like and sent 
out a disastrous fire. The few surviving Danes fled hur- 
riedly for their lives, leaving Lady Emerentia in proud 
possession of the fort. A second attack which was made 
later on proved as futile as the first. King Christian then 
gave command to abandon the plan of taking the fort. The 
Danish army collected in a field in front of Gullberg. But 
Lady Emerentia was vigilant. From the walls of the fort 
she espied a man of prepossessing appearance who rode a 
white horse. " Shoot that man!" was her immediate com- 
mand to the nearest soldier. The shot took effect, killing 
the white horse, whose brains and blood spattered the king. 
For the man on horseback was King Christian. "That 
devilish crow does never sleep!" exclaimed the king, refer- 
ring to the commander. 

King Christian turned on New Lcedcese, killing without 
mercy all the male inhabitants of the town. West Goth- 
land was invaded, the province appearing to be an easy 
prey because the Swedish army, commanded by Duke John, 
had just left it to march into Halland. But the bailiff of 
Hoejentorp called on the peasants to rise, which caused the 
Danes to recede. The Danes next made an attack on the 
fortress of Elfsborg, commanded by Olof Strole. Elfsborg 
was defended with heroism, but when fire threatened to 
destroy the towers, Olof Strole at last surrendered. On 
account of their valiant conduct the commander and his 
men, who were reduced to 200, were granted free passage 
with their music and banners. The able Morten Krakow 
of Gullberg had been promoted to the fortress of Yaxholm. 
His successor surrendered Gullberg to the Danes shortly 
after the fall of Elfsborg. King Christian planned a series 



298 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

of invasions in the year 1612, but, thanks to the vigilance 
of Gustavus Adolphus, he failed to accomplish the desired 
effect. 

Gustavus Adolphus wanted peace with Denmark, and 
such was made at Knerosd in 1613, after a war of mutual 
invasions and without any decisive battles or conquests of 
territory. The frontiers were to remain the same as before 
the war; the Danish king was allowed to keep the emblem 
of three crowns, but had to resign his claims upon the Swed- 
ish crown. The fortress of Elfsborg remained in the hands 
of the Danes for six years, until $1,000,000, an exorbitant 
sum in those days, was paid for it. It cost the people of 
Sweden very dear to pay this sum, sacrifices being made 
by the king and his friends to contribute to it. But Elfs- 
borg, the only approach to the North Sea, was indispensa- 
ble. It was returned in a miserable condition, and Goth- 
enburg, on the opposite side of Gotha River, destroyed. 
Gustavus Adolphus ordered Gothenburg to be moved to its 
present site, on the mainland, and endowed it with exten- 
sive commercial privileges, encouraging Dutch merchants 
to settle there. 

The war with Russia began once more in 1614. Gus- 
tavus Adolphus not having been found willing to accept the 
crown for his brother Charles Philip, the negotiations were 
dropped. Count de la Gardie resumed control of the move- 
ments, although the king was present in person. The 
Swedes won a great victory at Bronitz and captured the 
fortress of Augdof. An attempt to take Pskof was unsuc- 
cessful, Evert Horn, the hero of a hundred battles, losing 
his life; but the Russians were willing to make peace. 
Through the honorable peace of Stolbova, in February, 
1617, Russia gave up all claims on Esthonia and Livonia, 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 199 

and ceded to Sweden Ingermanland and Kexholm. This 
cut off the Russians from the Baltic, fixed the Swedish 
frontier on the lakes Ladoga and Peipus, and left Sweden 
in peace with the mightiest of her enemies during almost a 
century. The armistice with Poland ended in 1616, but 
after two years of insignificant movements it was continued 
up to 1620. 

Gustavus II. Adolphus with untiring energy continued 
the work of building up the new state founded by Gustavus 
I. At the death of his father, the royal youth had won 
everybody by his gentleness and generosity. His first act 
was perhaps the wisest of all, in selecting among the coun- 
cillors the young, highly talented Axel Oxenstierna as his 
chancellor. This couple have no peers in history, being 
united by the firmest of friendships and rising simultane- 
ously to the highest ability of statesmanship, the gifts of 
the one wonderfully supplementing those of the other. The 
chancellor was cooler and slower than his royal friend. He 
placed supreme the duties to his country, but was of very 
aristocratic tendencies, through his influence leading the 
king still further away from the democratic principles of his 
father. To the nobility were granted the old privileges, 
with others in addition, which became menacing to the 
ancient freedom of the peasantry. The management of 
internal affairs and all branches of the administration were 
placed under various departments. They were presided 
over by the high functionaries and their offices chiefly filled 
by noblemen. A permanent supreme court was established 
in Stockholm, with the Drotsete as president, in 1614. In 
1623, a supreme court for Finland was established and a 
governor- general for that grandduchy appointed, who was 
also to be president of the court. In 1630, a supreme court 



200 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

for the Baltic provinces was established at Dorpat. The 
Riksdag, governed by the new rules of 1617, was to convene 
yearly, and to consist of the four Estates of the kingdom: 
the nobility, clergy, bourgeoisie and yeomanry, each divided 
into various classes. These latter were as yet not quite 
distinct or organized, except those of the nobility, who, in 
1625, formed a knightly chapter, the Riddarhus, which kept 
a register of the legitimate noble families of Sweden and 
Finland and watched over the interests of its members. 
The Estate of the nobility was divided in three classes, 
lords, knights and squires. To the first belonged the 
holders of counties" and baronies, to the second those whose 
ancestors held the rank of state councillors, and to the third 
the rest of the nobility. As each class had one vote in the 
Riksdag, the . supremacy of lords and knights, called the 
"higher nobility,' ' was secure, when standing united, over 
the more numerous third class, the "lower nobility." The 
king appointed the speaker of the nobility, the landtmar- 
skalk, who also was the president of their chapter. The 
Swedish church had its greatest epoch during the period 
of political grandeur, being characterized by a remarkable 
strength of faith and by a praiseworthy energy and earnest- 
ness. The clergy, high and low, set beautiful examples of 
piety, learning and patriotism. It was beloved by the peo- 
ple and spoke in their behalf with authority and courage. 
Not able to win Gustavus Adolphus over to more demo- 
cratic views, it won his admiration, and he surnamed the 
ministers "tribunes of the people." The burghers, touched 
by the patriotic spirit, developed great energy during this 
period, trade and commerce having a devoted patron in 
the king, who, besides the new Gothenburg, founded twelve 
other towns in Sweden and Finland. The miners occupied 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 201 

of old an uncertain position between burghers and yeomen. 
They were strengthened and encouraged by the personal 
interest which the king took in the mining industry. He 
visited the mines repeatedly, descending into the bowels 
of the earth to inspect the ore and the new methods intro- 
duced from abroad by foreign miners. Among the latter 
the immigrated Dutchman, Louis de Geer, exerted a bene- 
ficial influence upon that industry. The factories producing 
clothing and weapons for the army were also encouraged. 
The yeomen occupied a difficult, almost desperate position 
between the increasing privileges of the nobility and the in- 
creasing taxes of the crown. Their burdens were doubled 
and their rights reduced; yet sustained by the church, and 
believing in the lofty ideals of the king, they persevered, 
fulfilling their duties with a high degree of patriotism. 

No Swedish king has done so much for education as 
Gustavus Adolphus. To the University of Upsala he do- 
nated 300 of his hereditary estates, founding its library, 
improving its courses, banishing misrule, and appoint- 
ing his old teacher, John Skytte, its chancellor. He 
created the German University of Dorpat in Esthonia, in 
1632; later for some time moved to Pernau. Colleges were 
established in the larger towns. The king was, through 
his thorough studies of Swedish laws and conditions, in a 
position to take an active part in the reforms which he 
promulgated, never resting long in one place, but travel- 
ling from one point to another, where his presence was 
most necessary; shaping plans and reforms by his own 
judgment, to have them indorsed by the next Riksdag, 
and then enforcing them himself. Especially the army 
passed through an evolution, thanks to new methods, de- 
vised by the king, who was to win his victories through 



202 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

the introduction of improved tactics and divisions, by means 
of which the troops were easier to move and the co-opera- 
tion between the various weapons increased. 

In 1618 the "Thirty Years' War" began. The de- 
throned Frederic of the Palatinate turned, among others, 
to Gustavus Adolphus for support, which the latter was 
not able to give in a direct way. But he promised to at- 
tack Poland as soon as the armistice was at an end, thereby 
making it impossible for Sigismund to support Emperor 
Ferdinand with troops. In 1621, Gustavus Adolphus com- 
menced operations against Poland, taking the command 
himself. Riga and Mitau were captured, the former im- 
portant commercial centre regaining its privileges, but send- 
ing representatives to the Swedish Riksdag and accepting 
a Swedish governor. After having conquered Livonia, 
Gustavus Adolphus entered Courland the following year, 
when an armistice was agreed to. Gustavus followed the 
events in Germany with increasing interest, forming the 
plan of an alliance between the Protestant powers. Learn- 
ing that the emperor was willing to support Sigismund, 
Gustavus Adolphus offered to invade Silesia. But as Chris- 
tian IV. of Denmark was anxious to lead the Protestant 
forces, Gustavus Adolphus quietly withdrew, resuming 
action against Poland. After a victory at Wallhof, he 
entered Polish Prussia, where he was dangerously wounded 
at Dirschau. The Poles were reinforced by imperial troops, 
but suffered a defeat at Gurzo; the Swedish general, Her- 
man Wrangel, winning the day. When the considerable 
reinforcements of 10,000 men joined the Poles, the Swedes 
receded in good order. A smaller conflict occurred at 
Stuhm, famous because Gustavus Adolphus was twice in 
danger of his life during the struggle, which otherwise 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 203 

was of no importance. An imperial trooper caught him 
by the belt and tried to drag the king with him. Accord- 
ing to the report of Axel Oxenstierna, the king loosened 
the belt and let it go. In so doing, he also lost his hat, 
which was carried to Vienna and preserved as a token of 
the "great victory." Another trooper, shortly afterward, 
caught the king by the arm, aiming at the head with his 
sword. In the critical moment, Eric Soop, the colonel of 
a Swedish cavalry regiment, appeared, killing the trooper 
with a pistol-shot. Gustavus Adolphus referred to this 
struggle as the ' 'hottest bath" that he was ever in. 

In September, 1629, an armistice was agreed to, at 
Altmark, to last for six years, during which period Sweden 
was to keep Livonia and the Russian towns of Elbing, 
Braunsberg, Pillau and Memel. The new acquisition of 
territory was small, but the revenue from these commercial 
towns, and from Dantzic, Libau and Windau, was consid- 
erable, and went to pay for the army expenses of the Ger- 
man campaign. The new temporary possessions in Prussia 
were formed into a Swedish governmental section, over 
which Axel Oxenstierna was appointed governor-general. 

What follows belongs to one of the most noted chapters 
of universal history. The unbroken chain of Swedish vic- 
tories, the noble character of the king and the severe dis- 
cipline upheld among his men, who commenced and ended 
their battles with prayers and hymns, astounded the world. 
The exalted nobility of Gustavus Adolphus appears to us 
all the more striking, contrasted with the faithlessness, 
vanity and cowardice of the contemporary reigning princes 
of Germany and Denmark. His victories appear all the 
more remarkable because the greatest warriors of the age — 
Tilly, Wallenstein and Pappenheim — were his adversaries. 



304 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

He was received by the people of Germany as a liberator, 
and his memory is blessed by every thinking German, who 
admits that the Swedes, Gustavus Adolphus and Axel Oxen- 
stierna, completed the work which the Germans, Luther 
and Melanchthon, created. The loftiness of the ideals 
which inspired Gustavus Adolphus have been doubted, 
but not with justice. He was brought up in a severely 
Christian home and the sincerity of his piety is unmistak- 
able. His father's clairvoyant views upon the coming 
religious conflict were familiar to him since his early youth, 
while he was, through his mother, related in blood to the 
majority of Protestant princes. Thus apparently predes- 
tined, as the greatest statesman and warrior of his age, to 
take up the cause of his persecuted brethren, he did not do 
so before the ambitious Christian IV. had utterly failed 
in his attempts and with contumely been forced to retire. 
It is not probable that Gustavus Adolphus ever thought 
of placing the crown of the Roman empire upon his head, 
but plausible to suppose that he had in view the formation 
of a strong union of the Protestant countries of Northern 
Europe. 

Before leaving Sweden, Gustavus II. convoked the rep- 
resentatives of his people, holding on his arm his little 
daughter Christine, four years old, for whom he asked their 
pledge of allegiance. His farewell speech was touching 
in its simplicity and the premonition of his tragic end. 
Not for worldly glory, but to save his country from peril 
and his brethren from distress, he undertook this risky war. 
"Generally," he said, "it happens thus that the vessel hauls 
water until it goes to pieces. With me likewise, that I, 
who in so many perils for the weal of my country have 
shed my blood, and yet until this day have been spared 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 205 

through the grace of God, now at last must lose my life. 
For that reason I will this time commend you, the collected 
Estates of the realm, to the hand of God, the Supreme One, 
wishing that we, after this our miserable and burdensome 
life, according to the will of God, may meet again, to dwell 
in the celestial and infinite." These words do not resemble 
the terse, striking speeches of his grandfather, but they bear 
the stamp of sincerity, and by them Gustavus Adolphus, 
his work and his purpose, are judged by the Swedish 
people. 

Midsummer Day, 1630, Gustavus Adolphus landed with 
his troops at the island of Ruden, on the coast of Pome- 
rania. Two days later he proceeded to the larger island 
of Usedom. His troops consisted of 13,000 men. Gustavus 
Adolphus was himself the first to land. He knelt on the 
shore and prayed to God in a loud voice; his prayer moved 
those surrounding him to tears. When the king noticed 
it he said: "Do not cry, but pray to God with fervor. 
The more of prayer, the more of victory; the best Chris- 
tian is the best soldier. ' ' Then he took hold of a spade and 
commenced to assist personally in the work of building a 
camp. When it grew dark, the heavens were illuminated 
by the fire of burning villages, giving evidence of the man- 
ner in which the enemy conducted his warfare. 

The supercilious Wallenstein had been dismissed by the 
emperor at the time when Gustavus Adolphus landed in 
Germany, but his wild hordes were pillaging Pomerania. 
Yet Gustavus Adolphus had great difficulty in persuading 
the old duke of Pomerania to accept the alliance he offered 
him. But when this was done, it took the Swedes only a 
short time to clear the duchy of its enemies. The young 
landgrave of Hesse and the free city of Magdeburg were 



206 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

glad to accept an alliance with Gustavus Adolphus. A 
treaty was made with France, which country promised to 
pay subsidies to Sweden as long as the German war lasted. 
Tilly, who was in command of the imperial troops, ap- 
proached Magdeburg. Gustavus Adolphus sent proper 
provisions to Magdeburg with an experienced commander, 
as he could not go himself, because the elector of Saxony 
refused to let him pass with his army through Saxon terri- 
tory. Magdeburg was captured by Tilly, who sacked and 
destroyed it by fire in a most barbarous way. 

The discipline and moderation of the Swedish troops 
formed a great contrast to the reckless behavior of the im- 
perial army. The Swedes left the peaceful inhabitants 
in undisturbed possession of their lives and property; the 
strictest order was maintained within the army ; each regi- 
ment held morning and evening prayers in the open air; 
gambling, carousing and plundering were sternly prohib- 
ited. For these reasons the Swedish king and his army 
were received by the poor downtrodden people as saviors 
and liberators. Gustavus Adolphus deeply mourned the 
fall of Magdeburg, whose fate it had not been in his power 
to prevent. He took a fortified position at Werben, where 
the river Havel is joined by the Ube. Tilly entered Saxony 
with a hostile demeanor, not satisfied with the lukewarm 
friendship of the elector. Burning villages marked the way 
of his army. The poor elector, not knowing what to do, in 
his despair turned to Gustavus Adolphus, whom he had 
treated so coldly and begged him for help. The king at 
once was ready to forget past differences, and, joining 
forces with the elector, he marched toward Leipsic. 

Tilly, with 35,000 men, occupied an advantageous posi- 
tion near the village of Breitenfeld, not far from Leipsic, 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 207 

at the summit of a long ridge of sandy bills. The infantry 
and the greater part of the cavalry were grouped in heavy 
divisions, forming one single line of battle with artillery 
behind at the very top of the hills. Tilly himself com- 
manded the centre, while his able and fiery sub-commander, 
Pappenheim, had the command of the left wing, being in 
hopes to encounter the Swedish king personally. The 
Swedish army consisted of 22,000 men, who were joined 
by 11,000 Saxons. 

Early in the morning of September 7, 1631, the Swedes 
started toward Breitenfeld. Tilly turned pale, it is said, 
when he saw the order and firmness with which the Swedes 
marched up to take their positions on the narrow slips of 
ground between the Lober brook and the reach of the im- 
perial cannon. The Swedes were arranged in a double line 
of battle, infantry in the centre and cavalry on the wings. 
Between the squadrons of cavalry divisions of musketeers 
were placed. The regimental artillery was distributed over 
a number of places. The king commanded the right wing 
in person, with John Baner as sub-commander. Teuffel 
led the centre and Gustavus Horn the left wing. The king 
had no confidence in the Saxons, for which reason he had 
arranged them by themselves at some distance to the left 
of the Swedish army. When everything was arranged, the 
king rode to the front. With his head uncovered, and his 
sword pointing to the ground, he prayed: " Almighty God, 
thou who holdest victory and defeat in the hollow of thy 
hand, turn thine eyes unto us, thy servants, who have come 
hither from distant dwellings to fight for liberty and truth, 
for thy holy Gospel. Give victory unto us for the glory 
of thy hallowed name! Amen!" The prayer of the king 
could be heard by almost every man of the army, and all 



208 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

were touched and strengthened by his pious trust in a right- 
eous cause. The Swedes of the right wing were soon at- 
tacked by Pappenheim and his cavalry. But the horses 
of the imperialists were frightened by the flashing fire of 
the musketeers, and the attack failed to have an effect. 
It was ended as quickly as it was begun. Pappenheim 
concluded to make an attempt to surprise the Swedes from 
the left side. But the king divined his plan. He ordered 
John Baner with the second line to make a movement by 
which to turn at an angle with the first and face the attack 
from the side. Pappenheim was surprised to find a new 
line facing him. A bloody struggle ensued. Seven times 
his men made an inroad on the Swedish line and were seven 
times repulsed, badly damaged by the fire of the musket- 
eers. The Swedes, in their turn, made an attack which 
scattered Pappenheim's forces from the field in wild flight. 
Tilly had with his light cavalry attacked the left wing 
of the Swedes. His men were mostly made up of Croats 
and other semi-barbarous people. When repulsed by the 
Swedes they concentrated their forces to crush the Saxons. 
These withstood the first assault, but the second routed 
them completely. The imperialists then made a second 
attack upon the left Swedish wing, made up of only 2,500 
men. Gustavus Horn acted with coolness and great pres- 
ence of mind. He let the first line close in on the second 
till it was able to take a firm stand against the heavy force 
of the attacking enemy. The Swedes never for a moment 
lost their position, in spite of the frightful onslaught. The 
king arrived and remained for some time with the left wing. 
He ordered the Scotch brigade of hired troops to support 
him. The Scotch had cannon hidden behind their lines. 
These had a telling effect upon the attacking imperialists, 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 209 

who were thrown back, suffering great losses. Everywhere 
the battle was fought with frenzy, the clouds of dust and 
smoke changing the day into night. 

The king made sure that the left wing of the enemy's 
army was engaged in continued flight. Then he com- 
menced an attack with his own right wing upon the im- 
perial artillery, which had kept up a steady fire against the 
Swedish centre. Tilly's cannon were captured at the first 
attempt and turned on the imperial troops, causing con- 
sternation. Horn opened an attack on his side and the 
king hastened to support him with his troops. Tilly tried 
in vain to lead his troops into the battle. Pappenheim had 
returned and gave brilliant proofs of personal courage. The 
defeat of the imperial army was unavoidable; it scattered 
in helpless confusion. Tilly lost his horse and was near 
being captured himself. Four of his best infantry regi- 
ments took a stand and tried to resist the conquering foe. 
These imperial soldiers, who never had suffered a defeat, 
preferred death to surrender. Tilly fled at last, followed by 
only 600 men. After five hours of fighting the Swedes had 
won a glorious victory. They finished the day with prayer 
and remained on the battlefield over night, arranged in 
order of battle. The following morning they entered the 
deserted camp of the enemy where a rich booty awaited 
them. 

The progress of Gustavus Adolphus along the shores 
of the river Main to the towns of Frankfort and Mayence 
was a march of triumph. In capturing Mayence, the 
Swedes fought the Spanish allies of the emperor. The 
towns surrendered to violence or by their own consent. 
Gustavus Adolphus made their inhabitants pledge their 
fidelity to him and strengthened his power with the rich 



210 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

resources of the Frankish country. Then he turned against 
Maximilian of Bavaria. Tilly, who was to defend Bavaria, 
was again encountered and defeated at Lech. He was car- 
ried from the battle mortally wounded and died soon after- 
ward. Gustavus Adolphus made his triumphal entry into 
Munich, with Frederic of the Palatinate at his side. The 
danger to the crown lands of the emperor was immi- 
nent. 

Wallenstein was the most famous of German generals. 
Reticent and secretive, he appeared to be unable to feel 
mercy. He was devoted to the secret doctrines of astrol- 
ogy} which in him had taken the place of religion. He 
cared naught for the cause of religious liberty or the fall 
of the German empire, looking only for occasions to sat- 
isfy his own ambition and the means of obtaining power 
and wealth. He had served the emperor, who had raised 
him to the dignity of a duke of Mecklenburg, but had been 
dismissed and deprived of his dignities at the time of the 
arrival of Gustavus Adolphus on German soil. His down- 
fall was caused by complaints of his insolence and reckless- 
ness, made by Maximilian of Bavaria and other German 
princes. Wallenstein retired to Prague, at the castle of 
which town he surrounded himself with princely luxury 
and comfort, scheming for revenge. His plan was to join 
the enemies of the emperor. He approached Gustavus 
Adolphus for such purpose, before the battle of Breitenfeld, 
and was delighted to hear of the defeat of Tilly. Gustavus 
Adolphus seemed at first inclined to take up relations with 
"Wallenstein, but at the point where an agreement was to 
be made he suddenly changed his attitude. The king prob- 
ably hesitated to accept the services of a man who had no 
other aim than to satisfy his own ambition. The emperor 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 21: 

was placed in a bad predicament, at the second defeat of 
Tilly, for want of an army to defend his lands and a com- 
mander to lead it. There was only one way out of the 
difficulty, and that was to pacify the mortally offended 
Wallenstein, and to persuade him to re-enter the service 
of the emperor. The emperor resigned himself to accept 
this humiliating condition, and Wallenstein agreed to re- 
same command, but only at a high price. The name of 
Wallenstein was enough to bring thousands of warriors 
under the imperial banners, and Wallenstein was soon at 
the head of an army of sufficient proportions. His doctrine 
was that "the war should support itself," according to 
which his soldiers were allowed to sack and plunder at will 
the countries through which they were passing. He cared 
naught for the recklessness of his subordinates, if they only 
showed blind obedience to him. 

Wallenstein expelled the Saxons who had invaded Bo- 
hemia. But he showed disinclination to assist the elector 
of Bavaria, who was compelled to leave his country. At 
Eger, Wallenstein was reinforced and marched on Nurem- 
berg with an army of 60,000, prepared to meet Gustavus 
Adolphus. He was confident of his superior force. "With- 
in four days," he said, "it shall become evident whether 
I or the Swedish king is the master of Germany." Gus- 
tavus Adolphus hastened to relieve Nuremberg, taking his 
position in the immediate neighborhood of said town. He 
had only 18,000 men with him, but he surrounded this army 
with solid fortifications, and Wallenstein dared not risk an 
attack, in spite of his superior force. Wallenstein took his 
position at the summit of three steep hills, surrounded by 
trenches and ramparts. His intention was to cut off the 
Swedes from all sources of supplies and force them to sur- 



212 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 



•>•> 



render by starvation. "I shall teach the Swedish king, 
he said, "a new method of warfare." 

For nine weeks the two armies were facing each other. 
The suffering became great in both camps. The Swedes 
suffered most, although the inhabitants of Nuremberg tried 
their utmost to supply them with food. When the provis- 
ions were diminishing, the bonds of discipline were loosened. 
Especially the Germans of the Swedish army made them- 
selves conspicuous by licentiousness and plunder. Gus- 
tavus Adolphus decided to try an attack on Wallenstein's 
camp, in order to put an end to the critical state of things. 
He was so much more anxious to risk it, as his army had 
been considerably reinforced and was almost equal to Wal- 
lenstein's in numbers. At noon, August 24, 1632, the 
Swedish army made ready for battle. The attack was first 
made on Burgstall, the most important one of the three 
hills occupied by the enemy. The battle was a fierce and 
bloody one, the whole mountain being clothed in fire and 
smoke. Several of the most distinguished of the Swedish 
officers were killed or captured. A bullet passed through 
the boot of the king ; an officer was killed at his side. The 
Swedes were thrown back on one hand, while on the other, 
Duke Bernhard of Weimar, one of the German commanders 
of the king, succeeded in capturing one of the forts built on 
the Burgstall. But as the day was over and the army 
exhausted, the Swedes were not able to profit by their suc- 
cess. A heavy rain commenced, continuing through the 
night. This made it impossible to haul any cannon up to 
the captured fort, which was then abandoned. The Swed- 
ish army returned to the camp. This unsuccessful attack 
cost the Swedes almost 2,000 men. Gustavus Adolphus 
wrote in regard to it: "It was too much to be considered 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 213 

a page's trick, but too small to be of real earnest." Wallen- 
stein wrote of it. " Never in my life have I seen a more 
desperate fire, but I hope that the Swedes have lost their 
horns in this conflict." 

The king broke camp a fortnight later, arranging his 
army into a line of battle. For four hours he waited for 
Wallenstein to come forward, but the latter did not risk 
an attack. Gustavus Adolphus intended to enter Swabia, 
to complete the conquest of Southwestern Germany. But 
Wallenstein, who soon afterward also broke camp, invaded 
Saxony. This caused the king to change his plans. He 
was obliged to follow Wallenstein in order to protect his ally 
and to avoid the danger of being cut off from the connec- 
tions with his own empire. Wallenstein marked his way 
bv cruel devastation, and the appeals of the unhappy pop- 
ulation persuaded the king to take an early decision. 

The people of Saxony received Gustavus Adolphus with 
great enthusiasm, of which they gave evidence in the most 
exultant manner. People were seen kneeling everywhere 
on his way, imploringly stretching their hands toward him. 
The king was not content with their exaggerated devotion. 
4 'I fear that God is offended by their vain demonstrations 
of joy and soon shall show them that the one whom they 
adore as a god is naught but a weak and mortal man." 

Wallenstein was in the neighborhood of Leipsic, at the 
little town of Lutzen. He had sent away Pappenheim, his 
best sub-commander, to Halle with a considerable force. 
Gustavus Adolphus found this circumstance favorable and 
decided on an attack. 

It was the 6th of November, 1632. A heavy mist cov- 
ered the spacious fields around Leipsic. Wallenstein was, 
with the right wing of his army, close on Lutzen, the little 



214 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

town being set on fire, in order not to shield a clandestine 
attack. The flame of the conflagration appeared dull but 
magnified through the mists of the early morning. In 
front of the imperial army was the highway. Musketeers 
were stationed in and above the ditches, which were made 
deeper and provided with ramparts. The musketeers were 
so arranged that higher lines could shoot over the heads of 
the lower ones. Behind them was another chain of musket- 
eers. The artillery was placed partly behind the musket- 
eers, partly on the sides of a hill where some windmills 
were situated. The cavalry was placed on the wings, the 
infantry in the centre, both arranged in great square divis- 
ions. A courier had been sent to recall Pappenheim, as the 
army without his force counted only 18,000 men. The 
Swedish army was 20,000 strong and was arranged accord- 
ing to a plan similar to the one followed at Breitenfeld. It 
was arranged in two lines. Musketeers were interspersed 
among the cavalry. The regimental artillery was placed 
before the front. The king commanded the right wing, 
Nils Brahe the centre, Kniephausen the second line of the 
centre, and Duke Bernhard the left wing. 

The king, who for the time being had none of his best 
officers around him, spent the night in a wagon, together 
with Duke Bernhard and Kniephausen. He rose in the 
morning, dressed, without armor, in a blouse and a gray 
coat, and mounted his usual white charger, without having 
tasted food. He conducted in person the morning prayers 
of the army, when Luther's psalm, "Erne feste Burg ist 
unser Goto," was sung. After the song had ceased, the 
king made a short speech in Swedish, which he repeated in 
German. He said: "There you have the enemy. He is 
not now at the top of the hill or behind intrenchments, but 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 215 

in the open field. You know well how eagerly he has 
sought to avoid a conflict and that he is forced to fight 
because he cannot escape us. Fight, then, my dear country- 
men and friends, for God, your country and your king. I 
will reward you all. But if you flinch, you know well that 
not a man of you will ever see his country again." Then 
the psalm, "Versage nicht du Hseuflein klein," the words 
of which were written in German by Gustavus Adolphus 
himself, was sung. The king gave the sign of attack by 
waving his sword over his head and cried: "Forward in 
God's name; Jesu, Jesu, Jesu, help us to-day to strive 
to the honor of thy holy name!" 

It was eleven o'clock, and the mists had, to a great 
extent, scattered. The Swedish centre, with the battery 
behind, marched toward the highway. The left wing made 
an attempt to penetrate between the burning Lutzen and 
the batteries below the windmills. A terrible fire from 
muskets and cannon met the attacking Swedes. Whole 
lines of infantry were killed. The left wing suffered in 
particular. But when the Swedes reached their destina- 
tion, the centre moved on with great force, cleaning the 
ditches of musketeers, capturing seven pieces of artillery 
and making two of the great squares of imperial infantry 
retire from their position. "While fighting the third, the 
Swedes were surprised by the reserve and cavalry forces 
of the enemy, and had to abandon what they had taken, 
retiring into the open field. 

The king had, in the meantime, with the cavalry of the 
right wing, forced the ditches. When notified of the dan- 
ger in which the centre was placed, he hurried to assist his 
infantry. At the head of his Smaland cavalry he moved 
on so quickly that he was separated from the rest of his 



216 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

forces. The king was near-sighted and the mist once more 
thickening. For these reasons he happened to ride close 
up to the lines of the imperial cuirassiers. His horse was 
wounded, and the king himself received a pistol shot in the 
arm. He turned to one of his companions, Duke Frantz 
Albrecht, of Sachsen-Lauenburg, with a request to be es- 
corted out of the battle, but was at that instant wounded 
in the back, immediately falling off his horse. Duke Frantz 
Albrecht, only thinking of saving his own life, fled from the 
spot. But a German page, eighteen years of age, who ac- 
companied the king, jumped from his horse and tried to 
assist the king in mounting it. Some imperial cavalrymen 
passed by. They inquired for the name of the wounded 
lord. The page tried to hide his identity, but Gustavus 
Adolphus answered: "I was once the king of Sweden." 
One of the imperialists attempted to drag the king with 
him, but seeing some Swedish soldiers approaching, he sent 
in leaving a bullet through the wounded hero's brain. 

The Swedes had been thrown back from the highway 
all over the line. The white horse of the king, with empty 
saddle and stained with blood, was seen galloping before 
the front. The message of mourning spread with lightning 
rapidity through the army, causing universal sorrow and 
anger. The ambition to avenge the death of the beloved 
ki ug was kindled in every breast. Duke Bernhard at once 
assumed supreme command when notified of the catas- 
trophe. The sagacious Kniephausen thought the battle lost 
and considered it best to retire in good order. The duke 
answered: "Here is not the question of retreat, but of re- 
venge in victory or death." The Swedish line of battle 
soon moved forward once more and with redoubled strength. 
The right wing, commanded by the valiant Stolhandske, 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 217 

threw back the imperial troops who had caused the fall 
of the king. Mis Brahe once more carried the troops of the 
centre across the highway and captured for a second time 
the seven pieces of artillery. The left wing, commanded 
by Duke Bernhard, also moved forward victoriously, cap- 
turing the batteries at the windmill and pointing the can- 
non toward the enemy. When simultaneously some wagons 
loaded with powder for the imperial artillery exploded with 
a tremendous roar, the whole army of Wallenstein was 
thrown into a state of confusion. It was thought that the 
Swedes had made an attack from the rear. The cavalry 
fled in great numbers with the cries : ' * We know the king 
of Sweden! He is worst toward the end of the day.' : 

But now another cry was heard: "Pappenheim is com- 
ing! Pappenheim is coming!" And so it was. Pappen- 
heim arrived with his valiant cavalry at this important 
juncture. "Where is the king of Sweden to be found?" 
was his first question. When told that Gustavus Adolphus 
had been seen leading the right wing, he hurried thither, 
not knowing the fate that had befallen his royal enemy, 
and desirous of fighting him face to face. The imperialists 
recommenced the battle with renewed vigor. The scattered 
forces of cavalry and infantry were collected once more and 
were joined by the fresh troops of Pappenheim. The at- 
tacking Swedes met a stanch resistance. The latter were 
almost tired out, but preserved their courage. A contem- 
porary writer says that a battle was never fought in a bet- 
ter way by troops who had for such a long stretch been in 
the fire. The Swedish losses were exceedingly heavy. The 
royal standard and several other banners were taken. The 
able Nils Brahe was killed, and the division of which he 

was the head fell to the very last man. But Pappenheim, 

xx 10 



218 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

who rushed forward blindly, in his eagerness to meet the 
king of Sweden, was also killed, according to tradition, 
by a bullet from Stolhandske. "Pappenheim has fallen! 
All is lost!" shouted his men, and drew back discouraged. 
Wallenstein still thought there was a chance to hold the 
field against the exhausted enemy. 

Kniephausen had preserved the second line of battle in 
good order, resolved to cover the retreat he thought un- 
avoidable. He had sent away smaller divisions to support 
the first line, but not in numbers enough to disturb the 
order of his own troops. Now he commanded his men to 
the front, to fill all the gaps of the first lines. When this 
was done, the Swedes made a third attack. The evening 
sun pierced through the mists for a moment, and Wallen- 
stein in this light saw the Swedish army approach in a 
mighty solid line as at the opening of the battle. He was 
greatly surprised. This time the Swedes were resolved to 
conquer or die. Soldiers were heard to promise each other 
to stand by that resolution. For a third time the. Swedes 
passed the highway and recaptured, after a bloody struggle, 
the disputed cannon. The wings of Wallenstein's army 
were both in a state of dissolution. But his centre pre- 
served two divisions which offered a stubborn resistance 
until sunset, when they were ordered to retreat. The 
Swedes had won the day, but were too tired to pursue the 
enemy. Following their custom, they rested over the night 
on the battlefield they had bought by their blood. 

The loss of troops had been heavy on either side, 
amounting to about 6,000 men altogether, or about one- 
third of the whole number of men engaged in the battle. 
The excitement was so great on both sides that no prisoners 
were made. The corpse of Gustavus Adolphus, bruised 




DEATH OF GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS AT THE BATTLE OF LUTZEN 

Norway. 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 219 

and mangled, was found during the night under a heap of 
dead soldiers. A large monumental stone, with inscription, 
now marks the spot where the hero king lost his life. The 
Gustavus Adolphus Society of Germany is a living monu- 
ment to his memory. 



CHAPTER XI 
Period of Political Grandeiu — Queen Christine 

CHRISTINE was six years old when she succeeded 
her father. Her armies stood scattered through 
foreign lands, surrounded by enemies and faithless 
allies. Her country was covered with glory, but in direst 
distress. The most remarkable aspect of her father's great- 
ness now was to become apparent. G-ustavus Adolphus had 
left behind men whom he had educated as statesmen, and 
generals capable of bringing his work to a successful end. 
First among the former was the state chancellor, Axel 
Oxenstierna, the friend and adviser of the hero king. He 
managed to keep the Swedish allies together and to estab- 
lish harmony and unity of action between the Swedish com- 
manders, supplying funds to carry on the war and strength- 
ening the government at home with his courage and his 
wisdom. Oxenstierna was a statesman of considerable 
power before the death of the king; after it he grows in 
grandeur to carry the burden of unlimited responsibility 
placed on his shoulders. His coolness and dignity were 
a source of constant irritation to Richelieu, who said there 
was " something Gothic and a good deal of Finnish" about 
his proceedings in diplomatic affairs, while Mazarin said 
that if all the statesmen of his time were to be put aboard 
of one vessel, Oxenstierna should be placed at the helm. 
(220) 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 221 

The great chancellor always upheld the dignity of his coun- 
try. When French diplomatists forgot themselves thus far 
as to use, in correspondence, their own language, instead of 
Latin, the recognized language of diplomacy in that day, 
Axel Oxenstierna gave instructions that they should be 
answered in Swedish. 

After the death of Gustavus Adolphus, the war in Ger- 
many lost more and more of its original aspect. The cause 
of Protestantism was dropped out of sight for political inter- 
ests. The battles of Sweden were, to a great extent, and 
sometimes altogether, fought by foreign troops; but Swed- 
ish were the generals and statesmen who led the operations 
of the armies and the diplomatic deliberations. The success 
of Sweden, at first, seemed to have passed away with her 
great hero king. The imperialists won a great victory at 
Ncerdlingen in 1634. The young archduke, Ferdinand, had 
succeeded Wallenstein as their commander-general, the lat- 
ter having been murdered at the request of the emperor. 
Ferdinand marched on the town of Ncerdlingen with an 
army of German and Spanish troops, the experienced Pic- 
colomini being at his side, Duke Bernhard, who with an 
army had been taking possession of Franconia in his own 
personal interests, hastened to support the town and was 
joined by Gustavus Horn, who, with another army, had 
been stationed in Elsass. Count Horn gave the advice to 
await reinforcements, but the excitable Duke Bernhard 
opened an attack on the enemy, which necessitated an imme- 
diate battle. After eight hours of hard fighting, the im- 
perialists, who were 30,000 strong, entirely routed the 
Swedish army of 18,000 men, not a single Swedish regi- 
ment being among them. Horn was made a prisoner. 
Duke Bernhard, who soon afterward with his troops entered 



222 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

French service, acknowledged his fault, saying: "I was 
a fool, but Horn a wise man." Sweden lost through this 
terrible defeat an army and two able generals. The Swed- 
ish conquests in South Germany were lost, and the German 
allies were scattered, the elector of Saxony joining the cause 
of the emperor. The armistice with Poland came to an end 
in 1635, and it was renewed for twenty-six years, at the 
cost of the Prussian seaports, with their lucrative revenues, 
which had paid for the expenses of the German war. Ox- 
enstierna returned to Sweden to gather means wherewith 
to continue the war. The ordinary resources of Sweden 
were drained, and great sacrifices were needed. The 
Riksdag declared itself willing to "risk life, blood and 
means, until God grants a peace equal to the dignity of 
Sweden." 

John Baner was the man who re-established the success 
of the Swedish arms. He resembled Gustavus Adolphus 
in greatness of mind and ability in war, paying back the 
execution of his father under Charles IX., by loyalty to 
the illustrious son of the latter. Baner was a typical soldier 
of the Thirty Years' War, amiable, but licentious, and cruel 
to his enemies. An able tactician and strategist of inex- 
haustible resources, he had distinguished himself in the 
Polish war and later held many important commands. The 
death of Gustavus Adolphus stirred this strong man to the 
very depths of his soul. He left his army in Bavaria and 
arrived at Wolgast, resolved to leave the army. At the 
sight of the body of his beloved king, he was overcome by 
a paroxysm of grief. Axel Oxenstierna persuaded him to 
resume his command in order to bring the work of their 
dead master to completion. He marched with his army 
through Silesia to Bohemia 3 encamping before Prague. 



HISTORY OP SWEDEN 223 

After the battle of Ncerdlingen he retreated to Saxony., 
whose deceitful elector he reproached with harsh words. 
Intrigues by the latter to bring the German troops in Swed- 
ish service to mutiny were frustrated by Baner, who had 
only 2,000 Swedes and Livonians with him. The Saxon 
army followed Baner into Mecklenburg, but suffered a de- 
feat at Doemitz. Baner marched eastward and joined the 
Swedish force, which met him, from Prussia, commanded 
by Lennart Torstensson. The elector of Brandenburg also 
declared war on Sweden, Baner answering by invading his 
country. From the vicinity of Berlin, Baner continued his 
way through Saxony back to Mecklenburg, his German 
troops marauding with such cruelty that they were sharply 
remonstrated with by Baner, who said he found it strange 
that God did not instantly punish them. 

Baner was followed by the united armies of Austria and 
Saxony, but, having received reinforcements of Swedish 
troops, he turned on his tracks and met the enemy at Witt- 
stock, in Brandenburg, September 24, 1636. The Swedish 
army consisted of 20,000 men, while the opposing force was 
much larger and occupied a favorable position on a hill. 
Baner won a glorious victory, thanks to a skilfully executed 
manoeuvre. It grew dark, and the right wing of the 
Swedes was leading an almost forlorn hope against the 
overwhelming forces, when their left wing, after a difficult 
roundabout move, attacked the enemy from behind. Of 
the hostile armies every man was killed except a detach- 
ment less than 1,000 strong. The baggage, artillery and 
banners were taken, even the table silver of the elector and 
the imperial generals falling into the hands of the Swedes, 
who by this victory had regained their supremacy on Ger- 
man soil. 



224 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

Bane*r had commenced the siege of Leipsic, when, upon 
news of an approaching army of the imperial allies, he was 
forced to undertake the famous "Retreat from Torgau," 
which made him more celebrated than any of his great bat- 
tles. He with his army was near being surrounded at the 
river Oder, but saved himself through a series of movements 
of the highest strategic skill. Cardinal Richelieu wrote that 
"this retreat, by means of which Baner saved 14,000 men, 
less a few fugitives and wounded, with cannon and baggage, 
against an army 60,000 strong, is to be compared to the most 
glorious deeds in history." The enemy prided itself on hav- 
ing "caught Baner in a bag." "Yes," said Baner later, 
"surely they had me there, but they forgot to tie the string 
around." 

In Pomerania, Baner received the reinforcements from 
Sweden which he had awaited, and once more invaded 
Saxony, where he won a grand victory at Chemnitz, in 
1639. The Swedish army invaded Bohemia, cruelly de- 
vastating the country. Baner made a daring attack upon 
Regensburg in order to make the emperor and the whole 
German diet his prisoners. Sudden thaws frustrated the 
plans, making it impossible for the Swedes to cross the 
Danube. A superior force was sent to meet Baner, who 
saved his army by another famous retreat back to Saxony. 
On the way Baner was attacked by a fever and died at Hal- 
berstadt, in 1641. When the imperialists learned of the 
death of the Swedish Leonidas, they thought they could 
easily defeat his army. The Swedes saw the approaching 
enemy and collected around the coffin of their dead hero, 
offering solemn pledges to fight for the glory of his name. 
They then made a sudden attack upon the imperial army, 
which suffered a thorough defeat at Wolfenbuttel. John 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 225 

Barter, triumphant in death like his great master, was buried 
in the Swedish Pantheon of the Biddarholm. 

Baner had expressed the wish that Lennart Torstensson 
should succeed him as commander-general of the Swedish 
armies. Lennart Torstensson was a greater warrior even 
than John Baner; no Swedish general, Gustavus Adolphus 
not excepted, ever reaching higher skill or perfection in the 
science of war than this crippled hero. Torstensson was 
of a noble although not influential family. He entered the 
service of Gustavus Adolphus as a body page to the king, 
later distinguishing himself as an artillery commander. 
Torstensson took an honorable part in the battle of Breiten- 
feld, but made a prisoner at Nuremberg, he lost his health, 
during one year's captivity, in a miserable dungeon. During 
his later brilliant career he suffered greatly from rheuma- 
tism, and was mostly carried around in a litter throughout 
the battles which covered his name with undyiug fame. 
He was a pious man of a gentle and cheerful disposition, 
who tried his utmost to reintroduce among his troops the 
excellent moral behavior and severe discipline which had 
been lost after the death of Gustavus Adolphus. 

Torstensson with rigor suppressed the intrigues against 
Sweden which were secretly carried on within the army. 
Brandenburg received a new elector in Frederic William, 
who, ambitious and far-seeing, entered an alliance with the 
victorious power of the North. Torstensson now was en- 
abled to invade the imperial crown lands, commencing with 
Silesia ; but finding it necessary to force a battle he met the 
imperialists at Breitenfeld. October 23, 1642, the second 
great victory of Breitenfeld was won by Swedish arms. 
Archduke Leopold and Piccolomini led the imperial army, 
the latter general fighting as a common soldier to inspire 



226 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

courage by his example, but with no effect. The Swedes 
captured the baggage, cannon and banners of the enemy, 
taking 5,000 prisoners and leaving as many dead imperial- 
ists on the field. Torstensson conquered Leipsic on the 
following day. 

Torstensson marched through Bohemia and Moravia 
with the rapidity which characterized all his military move- 
ments, and penetrated to the very gates of Vienna, the em- 
peror with difficulty saving himself from being made his 
prisoner. But suddenly he left and marched through Silesia 
to North Germany. He had received an order from the 
state council to attack Denmark. The great chancellor was 
out of patience with the perfidy and intrigues of Christian 
IV., who stood in secret connection with every one of Swe- 
den's enemies. No previous declaration of war was made. 
Torstensson captured the Danish duchies of Schleswig and 
Holstein before any one could prevent it, his army then tak- 
ing possession of all Jutland. Gustavus Horn invaded 
Scania, almost completely capturing the whole province in 
spite of bands of freebooters among the peasants, called 
Snaphaner. 

Denmark was in danger of its very existence, but King 
Christian IV. did not forget his old wish to destroy the 
town of Gothenburg, whose growing prosperity caused him 
envy. He approached Gothenburg with a fleet, and viewed 
the town from the overlooking mountain of the Ramberg. 
His demands for a surrender were refused. Patriotic Louis 
de Geer had ordered from Holland a fleet at his own ex- 
pense, which was to go to the support of Gothenburg. It 
did not arrive in time, but King Christian left to meet it, 
and it later proved of great value in the Swedish move- 
ments at sea, joining the Swedish fleet in the Sound. The 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 227 

latter, consisting of twenty-two ships under the command 
of Clas Fleming, sailed to the Danish waters, capturing 
the island of Femern, supported by Torstensson. An inva- 
sion of the island of Funen was planned, but could not be 
effected. A great naval battle between the Swedish and 
Danish fleets was fought July 6th. It caused great loss 
on either side, without being decisive. King Christian, 
who commanded his naval forces, lost one eye and received 
over twenty different wounds. The Swedes kept the place 
of battle, but sought the Bay of Skiel for repairs, where 
they were hedged in by the Danish fleet. Clas Fleming 
encouraged his followers to cut through the line, in which 
they were successful. A month later he was killed by a 
shot from the coast of Holstein, where the Danes had erected 
a fort. The Swedes avenged the death of their valiant 
commander by destroying the fort and killing its defenders. 
Fleming was succeeded by Charles Gustavus Wrangel, who 
saved the fleet to Sweden, returning to Femern in the au- 
tumn, joined by the Dutch fleet of Louis de Geer. The 
Danish fleet was met with October 13th, and at once scat- 
tered. The swift-sailing Dutch ships went in pursuit and 
destroyed all the seventeen Danish ships but two, which 
brought the news of the disaster to Copenhagen. 

King Christian, who had in vain expected support from 
the emperor, found himself defeated on every point, and 
had no other choice than to make peace. The treaty was 
signed August 13, 1645, at Brcemsebro, Denmark ceding 
the provinces of Jemtland and Herjedal and the islands 
of Gothland and GEsel. The province of Halland was to 
remain for thirty years in the possession of Sweden, which 
country was exempt from duties of toll for the traffic in the 
Sound. Denmark disavowed all claims of supremacy over 



228 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

Holstein, the duke of said country two years later formally 
placing himself under Swedish protection. 

Lennart Torstensson had fulfilled his task in Denmark 
and returned to Germany. At Jueterbogk, in Branden- 
burg, he met the imperial army, which had been sent to 
cut off his retreat from Denmark, and entirely routed it. 
After this victory Torstensson hastened to Bohemia, resolved 
to " attack the emperor in his heart and force him to make 
peace." At Jankowitz, in Bohemia, Torstensson adminis- 
tered a new and crushing defeat to the imperialists, in 1645. 
The emperor, who himself had ordered his army to battle, 
had arrived in Prague to witness the defeat of the Swedes, 
which the Holy Virgin had promised him in a dream. He 
soon learned the news, which was quite different from that 
expected. The imperial commander-general, five generals 
and eight colonels were made prisoners by the Swedes, who 
captured the artillery and baggage of the enemjr. The 
health of Torstensson was at that moment so good that he 
was able to lead the movements on horseback. He said 
that such a bloody battle would not be seen for a long time. 

Torstensson invaded Moravia, the fortresses surrendering 
and the inhabitants fleeing in terror. For a second time 
he stood at the walls of Vienna. The very fortifications 
which protected the bridge across the Danube were capt- 
ured by the Swedes. The enemy, whom the elector of 
Saxony had promised to chase out of Germany, was now 
knocking at the gate of the emperor, who heard the report 
with consternation. But Lennart Torstensson was forced 
to surrender to a perfidious enemy, who came to his door 
without knocking. His rheumatic ailment returned with 
such violence that he was obliged to renounce his command 
and return from the fields where he had led none but vie- 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 229 

torious armies. He was succeeded by Charles Gustavus 
WrangeL The latter had to give up the siege of Vienna, 
but maintained, in connection with the French, the suprem- 
acy in Germany until an honorable peace was won. Upon 
his return to Sweden, Lennart Torstensson was covered 
with distinctions, being made a baron and a count on one 
and the same day. He was appointed governor-general 
of West Gothland, Yermland, and the lately conquered 
Halland, with his seat at Gothenburg, where he built him- 
self a palace (still the official residence of the governor of 
Gothenburg and Bohuslsen). Lennart Torstensson died 
in 1651, leaving behind the fame of one of the greatest war- 
riors known to history, and a spotless memory. 

The treaty of peace of Westphalia was signed in Octo- 
ber, 1648. The representatives of Sweden were John Ox- 
enstierna, a son of the great chancellor, and Adler Salvius. 
Sweden received, as a reward for her decisive and glorious 
part in the Thirty Years' War, the following possessions: 
West Pomerania, with the islands of Rugen and Usedom; 
the western part of East Pomerania, with the island of 
Wollin; the town of Wismar, with surrounding territory, 
and the bishoprics of Bremen and Verden. With these 
German possessions followed three votes at the German 
Diet. The Swedish government was to receive a sum of 
several millions to defray the army expenses, of which 
Queen Christine recklessly ceded the larger part. 

Through these glorious conditions of peace Sweden rose 
to the rank of one of the mightiest of European empires, 
which held the balance of power in Northern Europe. Her 
possessions made the Baltic almost an "inland lake of Swe- 
den," and efforts soon followed to make it completely so. 
Sweden exerted a beneficent influence throughout her large 



230 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

possessions, which, from a cultural point of view, hardly 
can be overestimated, Her methods of planting the seeds 
of culture, by establishing Swedish and German universi- 
ties, and by abolishing serfdom in the conquered lands, are 
worthy of the highest respect. But with her new political 
grandeur Sweden acquired formidable enemies; she had 
not the resources to sustain or defend her great possessions, 
and the development of the mother country was for a time 
misdirected by dreams of vain glory. 

The government of Sweden during Christine's minority, 
according to the directions left by her father, consisted of 
the five highest officials of the realm. Among these the 
chancellor, through his experience and his former intimacy 
with Gustavus Adolphus, was the leading spirit, king in all 
except the name, and deserving the honorable surname of 
"our greatest civilian," given him by Swedish historians. 
Unlike the majority of other uncrowned or crowned rulers, 
he did not use his power to secure wealth or distinction for 
himself and his family until upon his retirement. Offers 
to make him a ruling prince of Germany, and the young 
queen his son's consort, were coldly refused. While the 
war was going on he strengthened the foundations of the 
centralization of the state by the government regulations 
of 1634. At the side of the supreme court of Stockholm 
another was established at Jcenkceping, for Gothaland, with 
a state councillor as president. The system of various gov- 
ernment departments was enlarged upon. 1 The most im- 
portant of these was the chancery, in which all business to 
come before the government was prepared. Departments 
for commerce and for mining were established. Sweden 

1 These were not departments in the sense of bureaus, but collegia. 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 231 

was divided into eleven administrative districts, Icen, later 
increased to sixteen, each of these having a governor. Fin- 
land was divided into five districts. Count Peter Brahe 
the Younger, as governor-general of Finland, did more for 
this neglected country than was ever done before to right 
wrongs and foster prosperity. Livonia and Ingermanland 
received each their governor-general, the latter province, 
by repeated wars brought into a devastated condition, serv- 
ing as a place of deportation. This system of administra- 
tion won the admiration of the Continent and was in many 
instances copied as a pattern of perfection. The Swedish 
army was considered the finest in the world, and troops 
better trained or more victorious did not exist. At the end 
of the Thirty Years' War about 100,000 men were under 
Swedish command. The majority of these were foreigners, 
who afterward were enlisted for continual service. Their 
officers were raised in great numbers to the rank of nobles 
and endowed with dignities and estates. The army was 
divided into twenty regiments, seven of which were Finnish. 
The town and coast population regularly furnished able 
men for the navy. Much was done to improve the interior 
communications by means of new roads and canals. A 
postal route was established between Stockholm and Goth- 
enburg, and others followed. A Swedish postmaster in 
Hamburg had charge of the foreign mails. Newspapers 
were published, the government shaping for itself an organ 
for official announcement which is yet published. 

Great improvements were made in the mining industry, 
thanks principally to the efforts of the noble immigrant, 
Louis de Geer and his Walloons, who made the mines of 
Dannemora a source of riches. Weapons and cannon were 
manufactured not only for the army, but for exportation 



232 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

also. The brass foundries were excellent. The towns be- 
gan to flourish, especially Stockholm and Gothenburg, 
through commerce with Holland and the Baltic States. A 
Swedish colony, planned by Gustavus Adolphus through 
the South Company, created by him in Gothenburg, was 
founded in North America. In 1638 two ships, "Kalmar 
Nyckel" and "Fogel Grip," arrived at the mouth of the 
Delaware River, where territory was procured through 
honest purchase from the Indians. The Dutch in neigh- 
boring colonies tried to persuade the Indians to oust the 
newcomers, but the Swedish governor, Peter Menuet, won 
their goodwill by fair dealing. The members of the colony 
of Few Sweden were honest, upright people, who dwelt in 
peace with the natives. They accepted a governor ap- 
pointed by the government, in the person of John Printz, 
but refused to tolerate among themselves criminals who 
later were despatched to their colony, and these .had to be 
taken back. New Sweden after a few decades became the 
prey of the Dutch, but many American families point with 
justifiable pride to their descent from these honest and in- 
dustrious Swedish settlers. A Swedish colony on the coast 
of African Guinea existed between 1650 and 1663, but was 
through treacherous dealings turned over to the Dutch. 

Much was done to build up the educational system, 
several new colleges were established, and regulations made 
to instruct the peasants. Peter Brahe founded the Univer- 
sity of Abo, in 1640, while in Finland, and the German 
University of Greifswald, in Swedish Pomerania, was re- 
established. Swedish men of learning began to attract 
attention, such as John Skytte, who was considered the 
most brilliant Latin scholar of Europe in his day, Stiern- 
hcek, the jurist, Bureus and Messenius, the historians, and 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 233 

Greorg Stiernhielm, poet and antiquarian. The old Ice- 
landic literature was discovered and began to exert a strong 
influence on literature and science, to a great extent 
strengthening their chauvinistic spirit. The Swedish poets 
Stiernhielm, Runius, Holmstrcem, Lucidor and the poetess 
Brenner, from the Eddie songs, which contain some of the 
oldest humorous poems in existence, learned how to write 
in a humorous vein, something entirely unknown in the 
German and French literatures of that day. 

The excellent government, of which Axel Oxenstierna 
was the leading spirit, had its defects. In its perfect sys- 
tem of administration, which in the main features stands 
unshaken to this day, there appeared to be no room for 
the people themselves to be governed. On account of the 
great allowances made to the nobles it was necessary to 
increase the taxes of the peasants. Many had to leave 
their homes and farms for want of resources to pay their 
taxes; others were forced away from their property by the 
nobles. There was danger of the destruction of the free, 
self-dependent yeomanry. A hatred against the nobility 
grew up. The great lords returned from the wars laden with 
booty, erected fine castles, and continued the high living 
to which they had become accustomed while abroad. The 
power of the nobility was increased by lavish donations from 
Queen Christine and by the appropriation of other crown 
lands which the government was forced to sell or mortgage 
on account of the wars. The clergy were the spokesmen 
of the peasant class at the Riksdag, every year demanding 
with greater emphasis a restitution to the crown of its prop- 
erty, which was held by the nobles. 

Queen Christine herself took the reins of government, 
in 1644, at the age of eighteen. She had inherited from 



\/ 



234 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

her illustrious father some of his genius, and from her 
mother, Marie Eleonore of Brandenburg, a peculiar nervous 
disposition. Her mother took no interest in her until the 
death of Gustavus Adolphus, when a flood of exalted ten- 
derness suddenly was let loose over her. Count Jacob de 
la Gardie took the lead in opposing the undesirable and 
unstable character of this relation, Christine being sepa- 
rated from her mother and educated by the Countess-Pala- 
tine Catherine, a pious and noble woman, the older sister 
of Gustavus Adolphus. Greatly offended, Marie Eleonore 
left the country never to return. Queen Christine showed 
a remarkable faculty of absorbing knowledge. Well versed 
in a great number of languages, and well read in various 
sciences, particularly mathematics, she soon acquired fame 
as the most learned woman of her time. She was of frank 
countenance, slept little, cared little for dress, and was 
passionately fond of hunting and riding on horseback. 
Queen Christine possessed a sharp intellect, was daring 
and resolute, but headstrong, fickle, extravagant, and but 
little particular in her choice of favorites. Her vanity and 
egotism knew no bounds. At the beginning of her reign 
she took pains to give serious attention to the affairs of 
state. The great chancellor had been her instructor in 
economics and statecraft, but she repaid him by open cold- 
ness and secret antagonism. Her ambition to surround her- 
self with scientists of note, particularly foreigners who flat- 
tered her vanity by blowing her fame to the four corners 
of the earth, killed her interest for politics. Later she was 
seized by the evil spirit of frivolity, abandoning herself to 
empty pleasures and to excesses of extravagance when her 
learned admirers were forgotten for unworthy favorites. 
Among the latter, Count Magnus Gabriel de la Gardie was 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN* 235 

for a long time all-powerful. The grandson of General 
Pontus and a daughter of John III., he was the son of 
Count Jacob de la Gardie and Ebba Brahe, and one of the 
most brilliant noblemen of Europe. In his youth he formed 
an intimate friendship with the dauphin of France, later 
Louis XIV., who throughout his life honored him with the 
title of "Hon Cousin," or "Mon cher Cousin." His ambi- 
tion to become Queen Christine's consort was never satis- 
fied, nor was he allowed to accept the rank of a prince 
from the German emperor, but the queen made him the 
richest man in her realm. Magnus de la Gardie did not 
possess the sterling qualities of his ancestors, but was of 
great patriotism and lavishly liberal toward educational 
institutions, in this respect without a peer in Swedish his- 
tory. In 1666 he founded the Academy of Antiquities, 
which was the first archaeological institution in Europe, 
the Swedish antiquarians of the day, principal among them 
Bureus and Stiernhielm, doing valuable antiquarian re- 
search. In 1664, Count de la Gardie donated to the Uni- 
versity Library of Upsala a highly valuable collection of 
manuscripts and books, chiefly from Iceland. In the collec- 
tion was also the Gothic Bible translation of Bishop Wulfila 
in the only copy extant. Liberal with his silver, Count de 
la Gardie gave to the precious book a silver binding, as he 
had in earlier years presented to Queen Christine a silver 
throne (which is still in use). This book has an interesting 
history of its own. 

Codex Argenteus, the silver book, thus called on ac- 
count of its silver binding, contains fragments of the four 
Gospels in the Gothic language. The translation was made 
from the Greek original by Bishop Wulfila (b. 318-d. 388), 
the apostle of the Goths. The writing is done in so-called 



236 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

encaustum (printing with heated stamps) of gold and silver 
letters on vellum of scarlet color. This copy is considered 
to have been made toward the end of the fifth or in the 
beginning of the sixth century, when the East Goths still 
held sway in Italy. Its early fortunes are unknown, but 
it is supposed that the book was found in the possession of 
the Visigoths (or West Goths) when their empire was seized 
by the Franks, and donated to the monastery of Verden by 
some munificent Frankish chief. Here, in the Benedictine 
abbey of Verden, on the river Ruhr, in Westphalia, the 
book was discovered at least as early as 1554, when the 
scholars Cassander and Gualther of Cologne are known to 
have had copies which can have been made from no other 
source. 

After the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War, the Co- 
dex was transmitted to Prague for safety. In the year of 
1648, Prague, or rather the older portion of the town, was 
captured by the Swedish general, Count Hans Christopher 
Koenigsmark, who, among the vast treasures of the Bohe- 
mian capital, found also the Codex Argenteus which he 
presented to Queen Christine. All the books and manu- 
scripts of the queen were in the care of her librarian, Isaac 
Vossius, a learned but eccentric scholar of Dutch parentage. 
Vossius was at first Queen Christine's teacher of Greek, not 
a very agreeable position, for the queen called him to the 
castle at three o'clock in the morning for her first hour. 
In 1650 he had to leave court and country on account of a 
quarrel with that light of learning, Claude de Saumaise 
(Salmasius), another one of the foreign scholars in favor 
with the queen. In 1653 he was called back, and again took 
charge of the books of the queen, but soon returned to Hol- 
land. Before his departure he gathered several costly books 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 237 

and manuscripts, among which Codex Argenteus, with or 
without the queen's private permission, taking them with 
him. In 1670, Vossius came to England, where he died, 
in 1688, as court chaplain at Windsor. King Charles II. of 
England said of him: "Vossius believes in anything but the 
Bible." 

When in Holland, the Codex Argenteus passed out of 
the hands of Vossius after his uncle Franziskus Junius had 
made a complete copy of it. Junius, called the "grand- 
father of modern philology,' 1 published the first edition 
of Codex Argenteus at Dortrecht, in 1665, providing the 
beautiful fac-simile with parallel Old English texts and a 
Gothic glossary. In Holland the Codex changed hands 
repeatedly until found in Brabant by Samuel Pufendorff, 
in 1661, who, in the following year, bought it for Count 
de la Gardie, paying a sum of something like $1,200 
for it. 

Once more in Sweden the Codex Argenteus was made 
the subject of close attention, a new edition of it being pub- 
lished, in 1671, by Georg Stiernhielm, the innovator of 
Swedish language and literature. 1 That Bishop Wultlla's 
Bible should ultimately harbor in Sweden does not seem 
out of place, for of all languages now spoken the Swedish 



1 Through the efforts of the Swedish scholar, Eric Benzelius, Junior, 
a third edition was published at Windsor in 1750. J. K. Kohn's edition 
dates from 1805, founded on the works of the Swedish scholars Sotberg 
and Ihre. Of later editions, the one by Professor A. Uppstroem, of 
Upsala, of 1854 to 1857, is considered to be the standard one. A fine 
American edition has, in recent years, been published by Dr. G. H. Balg, 
of Mayville, Wis. The history of Codex Argenteus, after once for all 
being placed in the University Library of Upsala, has not been al- 
together uneventful. In 1834 ten of the 187 leaves were stolen and re- 
mained missing for twenty-three years. One of the trusted janitorial 
attendants of the library had taken them in the hope of obtaining a 
great sum of money for them, but later dared not dispose of them. On 
his death-bed he surrendered the stolen leaves. 



238 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

comes closest to the language of the Goths as crystallized 
during its classical epoch. The interest taken by Swedish 
scholars in the book has always been great and fruitful of 
results, in times when it was thought to be written in the 
mother tongue of all the Teutonic languages, as well as 
later, when Gothic was found to be, not the mother, but 
the oldest sister in the family. 

At the Riksdag of 1649 considerable dissatisfaction was 
directed against the nobility and the extravagance of the 
queen in deeding over to favorites all the possessions of the 
crown, in form of counties and baronies. The nobility 
sided against the queen, desirous of reducing her power. 
But Queen Christine received gracefully the complaints 
made, and promised to institute a reduction of taxes and 
payments. In the following year the commotion increased 
when the same taxes were asked as in time of war. The 
queen continued her policy of earnestly considering the 
requests of the lower Estates, thus gaining the controlling 
power. The nobility, suffering strife between its various 
classes, was forced to seek a shelter in the royal power it 
desired to crush, and humiliated itself before the queen. 
Christine received a joint appeal from the lower Estates 
for a restitution to the crown of all property illegally turned 
over to the nobility, but she managed to have the reform 
postponed upon promise of some minor privileges and a 
reduction of taxes. She refused the appeals of the nobility 
to have the clergymen and others punished who had used 
hard language against the aristocrats. But the discontent 
was spreading and turned against the queen personally. 
The ministers preached against the wrongs and violence 
of the mighty ones ; the nobles and the peasants threatened 
each other. Peasants in Finland refused to work for aristo- 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 239 

cratic masters, and a general rebellion seemed imminent. 
In the meantime Queen Christine was crowned at Upsala 
amid great display and elaborate festivities, the count-pala- 
tine Charles Gustavus, her cousin, being installed as heir- 
apparent to the throne. 

But Queen Christine was not able to still the storm 
around her. The finances of the crown were utterly ruined 
by her extravagance, and she dared not take by violence 
from the nobility what she had given by grace. In 1651 
she declared it to be her intention to leave the government, 
but was persuaded to remain. Her cousin was placed in a 
very difficult position, apparently taking no interest in what 
was going on, but following everything with the keenest 
attention. The son of John Casimir, count of Palatinate- 
Zweibrucken, and Princess Catherine, he was born at Ny- 
koeping in Sweden, in 1622, and designated as the future 
consort of Queen Christine. Charles Gustavus was edu- 
cated in simplicity and rigor, and was, as his father before 
him, utterly neglected by Axel Oxenstierna and the govern- 
ment. He slept in a room without wallpaper, and when 
through with his lessons he sawed wood with his teacher, 
Professor Lenseus. Burning with ambition, and perhaps 
also in love with his brilliant cousin, he proposed to her 
repeatedly, but in vain. After several years of extensive 
travel he joined Lennart Torstensson, refusing a command 
and working himself up through the military degrees. He 
;ook an honorable part in the victory at Jankowitz, and 
was appointed supreme commander of the Swedish armies 
shortly before the close of the German war. When the 
opposition against Christine reached its climax a good deal 
was expected from Charles Gustavus, which he, on account 
of his singular position, could not undertake to do. A peti- 



240 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

tion replete with abusive language about the queen was sent 
him, asking him to take hold of the government. Charles 
turned the document over to the queen. Its author, the 
promising young Arnold Messenius, and his father, an able 
historian, suspected as having inspired his son, were ac- 
cused of high treason, condemned to death and executed. 

This act of force produced an impression, and the new 
taxes demanded at the next Riksdag were granted without 
opposition. But the queen felt that the discontent was only 
subdued, not suppressed, and, having no further means to 
keep up a luxurious court, she did the wisest act of her 
reign, that of resigning, at Upsala, in June, 1654, Charles 
Gustavus being crowned the same day. The scene of her 
abdication was very impressive, Queen Christine carrying 
herself with noble and lofty dignity, an inheritance from 
her father which she made use of when she saw fit. Leav- 
ing the crown and the royal emblems, one by one, to the 
Riksdrotset, she descended the throne, from the lowest steps 
of which she spoke an eloquent and touching farewell to 
the four Estates of the Riksdag. She suddenly left the 
country after having secured for herself a princely income. 
At Innsbruck, the daughter of Gustavus Adolphus joined 
the Catholic church, thereby, and by her fame as a learned 
woman, creating a sensation. She died in Rome in 1689, 
after having made two unsuccessful attempts to regain her 
Swedish throne, and one equally unsuccessful to succeed 
the last king of the Polish line of the Vasa dynasty, and 
was buried in the church of St. Peter. 

Among the many learned men who at one time sur- 
rounded Christine were Vossius, Heinsius, Salmasius, Huet 5 
Freinshemius, Loccenius, Meibom, Boeclerus, Ravius, Schef- 
ferus, and others. The greatest of them all, the philoso- 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 



241 



pher Cartesius (Rene Descartes), died in Stockholm, in 
1650. 

After the love-story of Grustavus Adolphus had come 
to an end, he long felt a disinclination to marry. His sister 
Catherine is said to have tried to rouse him to the necessity 
of choosing a consort. His answer was always: "Never 
mind, dear sister, you shall yourself bring up a son to in- 
herit the crown and continue my work." This son of Cath- 
erine became Queen Christine's successor. 



XX 11 



CHAPTER XII 

Period of Political Grandeur — Charles X. and 

Charles XL 

CHARLES X. was one of the most ambitious men 
ever placed upon a throne, and Europe was soon 
to realize that a new war-lord was come. His am- 
bition, so long unsatisfied and secreted, burst forth with 
uncontrollable strength, in compass only to be equalled by 
his rare gifts of mind and heart. Charles Gustavus had 
suffered a good deal of neglect, coldness and hatred, but 
when ascending the throne he seemed to have forgotten all 
this. Oxenstierna died a few months after the abdication 
of Queen Christine, deeply impressed by the magnanimity 
and genius of the new sovereign. Charles Gustavus was 
one of the most highly gifted of Swedish monarchs. He 
had a great deal of interest in and rare discernment for the 
requirements of a peaceful development. But reared in 
the most warlike of times, when a reputation could be made 
only by winning so and so many " victorias" for the firm 
establishment of a hero's "gloire," Charles Gustavus 
thought that only the monarch favored by "Fama" would 
have the prestige to lead firmly the fate of his people. He 
often expressed the wish to rest from his campaigns in order 
to contemplate his work and make it beneficial to his people, 
but such a rest he never gave himself time to enjoy during 
his short and remarkable reign. 
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HISTORY OF SWEDEN 243' 

Charles burned with desire to gain fame in war, taking 
for pretext that the king of Poland, by his repeated claims 
to the Swedish throne, made peace treacherous and impos- 
sible. But such was the condition of affairs that some- 
thing must be done to quiet the malcontent people, restore 
peace between the quarrelling classes, and reimburse the 
empty state treasury. At a Riksdag in Stockholm, in 1655, 
a restitution was proposed by the king and agreed to, ac- 
cording to which all estates which in earlier times had been 
rendering dues to the direct support of the court, army, 
fleet, or administration, should be confiscated to the crown ; 
also one-fourth of the estates given away since the death 
of Gustavus Adolphus, and all estates fraudulently ob- 
tained. A committee to enforce the restitution was ap- 
pointed, to be presided over by the able Herman Fleming. 
The restitution, far from radical in itself, was not com- 
pletely carried through, thanks to the opposing nobles. 
But it proved effective for the moment, the king securing 
the goodwill of the people, temporary quiet and means to 
carry on the proposed war, to commence which Charles 
Gustavus received the somewhat reluctant consent of the 
faithful people whose financial state was a most despairing 
one. Charles X. thought in new conquests to find means 
to better their condition. Shortly after his coronation he 
married Hedyig Eleonore of Holstein-Gottorp. 

John II. Casimir of Poland, the younger son of Sigis- 
mund, like Vladislav, styled himself king of Sweden and 
had claims to Livonia. For this he should be punished. 
It was not the original intention of Charles X. to make 
himself king of Poland, but he was probably the first who 
ever devised a division of that unhappy country. The suc- 
cess of Charles X. was without a parallel. The strong for- 



'244 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

tresses were captured, the armies surrendered and registered 
in Swedish service. After two months Charles X. entered 
the old capital of Cracow, John Casimir fled from his coun- 
try, and, carried away by the frenzy of success, Charles 
Gustavus had himself crowned king of Poland. West 
Prussia was captured, and the elector of Brandenburg, who 
held East Prussia in fief, and the duke of Courland were 
forced to become the vassals of Sweden, in 1656. 

But Charles X. had roused an enemy that few invaders, 
however great, have been able to successfully encounter, 
the spirit of patriotism. The Poles, enticed to revolt by 
the Catholic clergy, found a leader in the noble Czarniecki, 
who commenced a war of liberation on the Swedish 
usurper. King John Casimir returned, and armies were 
gathered. Charles Gustavus was yet to do wonders of 
strategy, which aroused the amazement and fear of all 
Europe, but he was glad, when finding a good excuse, 
to extract himself from the affairs of Poland. In 
1656 he defeated Czarniecki at Golumbo, undertook the 
adventurous crossing of the river of San, and captured, 
and recaptured, the capital of Warsaw. The "three days' 
battle of Warsaw" (18th-20th of July, 1656) is one of the 
most famous in modern warfare, by which the reputation 
of Charles X., as one of the greatest warriors of his time, 
was firmly established. Charles X. had joined forces with 
the "great elector" of Brandenburg, who up to the last 
moment was unwilling to risk a battle of 22,000 men 
against an enemy twice as strong. Charles Gustavus was 
unyielding and turned it into a great victory. But his 
position became precarious, Russia, Germany, Holland and 
Denmark being hostile, joined by Brandenburg, the ambi- 
tious "great elector" not being satisfied with the Swedish 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 245 

supremacy in East Prussia. To save himself from the 
dilemma with untarnished glory, Charles X. decided to 
fight Denmark, which country had declared war without 
suspecting the possibility of an attack. 

Lenoart Torstensson, his master of strategy, had shown 
Charles X. how Denmark was to be attacked. With an 
army of only 8,000, but consisting of the choicest and most 
victorious troops in all Europe, Charles X. hastened in rapid 
marches through Pomerania and Mecklenburg, recaptured 
Bremen, and invaded through friendly Holstein all of Schles- 
wig and Jutland, defeating the larger but inexperienced Dan- 
ish army and capturing the strong fortress of Fredericia. 

Yet the new position was as precarious as the one in 
Poland, and Charles had to use all the skill of his diplomacy 
to save his little army from an assault by inimical Europe. 
France and England seemed unwilling to render him effec- 
tive help. But when the elector of Brandenburg, who had 
taken upon himself the leadership of Sweden's enemies, 
turned to the emperor, emphasizing the necessity of crush- 
ing the Swedish power in one blow, he received the follow- 
ing surprising answer: "The king of Hungary has no rea- 
son to be the enemy of the king of Sweden." Charles had 
reached a secret understanding with Austria. By this 
move he gained time. Through what seemed almost a 
miracle, he was not only to save his army but lead it on 
to victory after a strategic deed, in originality and daring 
unique in the history of the world. 

The year of 1658 commenced with severe frosts. 
Charles X. conceived the daring plan of attacking the 
Danish isles by leading his army over the frozen sounds. 
He concluded to cross the sound of Lille Belt, opposite the 
islet of Brandsce. His quartermaster-general, Eric Dahl- 



246 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

berg, an engineer of great genius, ascertained that the ice 
was safe. One frosty winter morning, the 30th of January, 
the Swedish army, reinforced to 9,000 men, marched down 
on the ice, safely reaching Brandsce at sunrise. A Danish 
army, arranged in order of battle in the island of Funen, 
was defeated. While crossing over to Funen, the ice 
cracked under two squadrons of cavalry, those who fol- 
lowed not daring to proceed. The king himself hurried 
past the dangerous place, pointing out a safe course, and 
the troops followed him. 

The most dangerous part remained to cross, the much 
wider sound of Store Belt, in order to reach Seeland. 
Charles first thought of taking the direct route of two 
miles, but commissioned Dahlberg to explore the condition 
of the ice across to the smaller islands to the south. Dahl- 
berg did so, and said he would wager his head for its per- 
fectly safe condition. In enthusiasm, Charles clapped his 
hands exclaiming: "Now, brother Frederic, we will con- 
verse in good Swedish !" In the night between th© 5th and 
6th of February, the Swedish army marched from Svend- 
borg in Funen over the ice to Langeland. "It was ter- 
rible," wrote an eye-witness, "to march through the night 
over this frozen sea, where the horses' hoofs had thawed 
down the snow on the ice, which was below two feet of 
water, and where we, in every moment, were in fear 
of striking the open sea." At dawn the army landed in 
Langeland. During the rest for breakfast, frozen beer was 
chopped and distributed in pieces to the soldiers. The 
march continued over the still wider sound to Laaland, 
Eric Dahlberg in front, directing the march. Reaching 
Grimsted in Laaland at three o'clock in the afternoon, and 
proceeding to Nakskov, Charles Gustavus was met, at mid- 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 247 

night, by the burgomaster and council of said town, who 
surrendered its keys. The 9th of February, the army stood 
in Falster, and a few days later was collected at the capt- 
ured castle of Vordingborg in Seeland. Peace was hastily 
offered and agreed to on the 17th, and the treaty of peace 
signed the 28th of February, 1658, at Rceskilde. The con- 
ditions were severe, Denmark ceding the provinces of 
Scania, Halland, Bleking and Bohuslaen, the whole dis- 
trict or diocese of Drontheim in Norway, and the island 
of Bornholm, and agreeing to hold the Baltic closed to 
hostile fleets with the help of Sweden. The last clause 
was a piece of a Scandinavian policy devised by the Swed- 
ish king. 

Charles X. now prepared to meet Brandenburg and 
Austria, once more siding against Sweden. It was neces- 
sary to keep Holland out from the Baltic, and when Charles 
X. found Denmark unwilling to keep the conditions of the 
recent treaty on that point, the war-lord became wrathful, 
dooming obnoxious Denmark to lose her very existence. 
But the spirit of patriotism, which so often had saved Swe- 
den in instances of extreme danger, now sided with Den- 
mark, as it had already sided with Poland. King Frederic 
declared he would die like a bird in its own nest, and roused 
the patriotism of the population of Copenhagen, which, 
badly defended, was hurriedly fortified at the news of an 
intended attack. Contrary to the advice of Eric Dahlberg, 
Charles X. made no instantaneous attack, but commenced 
a siege, although he did not bring with him the necessary 
means. The castle of Kronborg by Elsinore was captured 
and its cannon used against Copenhagen. The greatest 
enthusiasm prevailed in the Danish capital; the king slept 
in a tent by the fortifications, and especially the students 



248 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

and Norwegian sailors distinguished themselves by their 
valor and patriotism. Charles X. found it impossible to 
take Copenhagen and retired to some distance from the 
capital. What caused Charles to retire was the arrival 
of a Dutch fleet. It had been met by the Swedish fleet, 
under command of Charles Gustavus Wrangel, the hero 
of Fredericia and Kronborg. After six hours of hard fight- 
ing the Dutch forced the entrance to the Sound. Before 
leaving, the Swedish king resolved to make a desperate 
effort to capture Copenhagen, defended by 18,000 troops 
and by a patriotic population, with his 8,000 Swedes. The 
attack was made in the night of February 11, 1659, but the 
city, forewarned by traitors, tendered the Swedes a warm 
reception, consisting of artillery fire, stones, and scalding 
hot water. The Swedes lost 600 men and suffered their 
first and only defeat under the command of Charles X. 

The situation was grave. The Swedish army in Jut- 
land was forced to retire; the troops of 5,000 men in Funen 
were defeated and made prisoners; a revolt took place in 
Bornholm, and the Danes recaptured the district of Dront- 
heim. The powers united in their efforts to force Sweden 
and Denmark to a treaty of peace on the basis of the Rces- 
kilde stipulations. Charles still held his head high, declar- 
ing that he would crush the fleets of the allies if they tried 
to interfere in the affairs of the North, striking a sharply 
discordant note in the concert of the powers. To Denmark 
he was willing to cede the district of Drontheim, but pre- 
pared to occupy that of Akkershus instead, when he was 
taken ill at the convening Riksdag at Gothenburg, dying 
February 11, 1660, in the palace erected by his friend Len- 
nart Torstensson. 

Charles X. Gustavus wag one of the most remarkable 



HISTORY OP SWEDEN 249 

men of his day, whose wonderful deeds of bravery and 
genius caused amazement through their brilliancy, and 
anxiety through their recklessness. At the first glance his 
appearance gave no idea of the real man. He was short, 
and of an unusually square and clumsy build, with a head 
of coarse proportions. But there was the fire of genius in 
his sharp blue eyes; under the black hair, and below the 
thin black mustache, there was a mouth of firm and reso- 
lute lines. In the versatility of his endowment, he stands 
as one of the first among Swedish kings, the rich gifts of 
the Vasas and the Wittelsbachs being united in him. As 
a warrior he was great, yet more of a tactician than a 
strategist. As a statesman his views were almost as clair- 
voyant as those of his grandfather, Charles IX., but he 
gave way to the impressions and impulses of the moment. 
He failed to make the Baltic a Swedish inland lake, but 
gained for his country the inestimable gift of a natural 
frontier to the east and south, by the acquisition of Bohus- 
leen, Halland, Scania and Bleking, provinces more valu- 
able to Sweden than a whole empire south of the Baltic. 
Charles XI. was a child of four years at the death of 
his father; his country at war with a world, and in a 
sorely afflicted condition. In the will of Charles X., the 
queen-dowager, Hedvig Eleonore, was named to preside 
over the government, with two votes, and ihe brother of 
Charles X., the duke Adolphus John, was to take a seat 
with her as Riksmarsk. This arrangement displeased the 
nobility, understanding that it was directed against their 
influence, and they had the duke excluded from the gov- 
ernment. The lower Estates of the Riksdag sided with 
the duke, but soon gave up his cause as they found that 
he was utterly vain, quick-tempered, and without stability 



250 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

or genius. Lars Kagg, a good warrior, was appointed 
Riksmarsk in his place. Herman Fleming, the able state 
treasurer, was removed as disagreeable to the nobility, his 
ill-health being taken as an excuse, and was succeeded by 
Gustavus Bonde. Peter Brahe remained Riksdrotset, Mag- 
nus Gabriel de la Gardie state chancellor, and Charles Gus- 
tavus Wrangel state admiral. Kagg died in 1661 and was 
succeeded by Wrangel, Gustavus Otto Stenbock becoming 
state admiral. 

The first duty of the new government was to make peace 
for the bleeding county. This was effected in 1660 through 
the treaties of Oliva and Copenhagen, and in a most sat- 
isfactory manner, speaking high for the diplomatic abil- 
ity of the governing ones, but also of the ignorance of 
the powers of the utter helplessness of Sweden, in great 
contrast to her outward political grandeur. Poland ceded 
Livonia to Sweden, and Denmark all the territory gained 
by Charles X., except the district of Drontheim and the 
island of Bornholm, while Russia was satisfied with the 
boundaries set by Gustavus Adolphus. 

The government, with care and consideration, made 
the necessary arrangements to have the new provinces 
intimately connected with the country. Representatives 
were sent to the Riksdag of 1664, and the University of 
Lund, in Scania, was founded in 1668. If to this is added 
that a good deal was done to encourage art and science, 
principally through Count Magnus de la Gardie, who was 
the Maecenas of Sweden, the meritorious deeds of the gov- 
ernment during Charles XL's minority are enumerated. 
The less that is said of it in addition, and of its leading 
men, the better for these. They were men of some patriot- 
ism ; but, through their exceedingly aristocratic views and 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 251 

lack of stability, unable to further the interests of their 
country, so badly in need of reform. There was not one 
of them who possessed the abilities of a statesman. They 
lived like princes in their counties, each holding court and 
possessing various considerable castles, all the members 
of the higher aristocracy upholding the same standard of 
luxury and power, appointing clergymen and judges, found- 
ing towns, and discussing the necessity of having mints 
and coins of their own. Magnus de la Gardie, count of 
Leckoe, and married to a sister of Charles X., was the 
greatest of these lords. Close to him came Peter Brahe, 
count of Yisingsborg, and Charles Gustavus Wrangel, 
count of Skokloster. The barons approached the counts 
in their display of wealth. The lower nobility, whose 
members often served at the courts of the great lords, were 
not satisfied with this state of affairs. But in the contempt 
and oppression in which they held the lower classes, they 
agreed with the higher nobility, who made no secret of 
their intention to reduce the peasants to slaves. The peas- 
antry, suffering and neglected, became the prey of a super- 
stition which was shared by the more educated members 
of society, accusations and legal executions of witches be- 
coming numerous. 

The government was not agreed between themselves 
upon many questions and turned to the state council for 
support. The old privileged class of councillors forced their 
influence upon the government, and the position between 
the two became quite intimate, at the same time difficult 
to define. The state council was as divided in its opinions 
as the government, which fact had a disastrous influence 
upon state politics and administration. Great negligence 
was shown in the various departments, the records of re- 



252 HISTOEY OF SWEDEN 

ceipts and expenditures being imperfect, and a constant lack 
of funds existing. Forgery and thefts were committed by 
high and low officials. Administrative orders were not 
obeyed. The army and the navy suffered utter neglect. 

During such a state of affairs the abominable practice 
of receiving ''subsidies'* came into use. The government 
received, now from one foreign power, now from another, 
a large sum of money to back its respective interests with 
the military forces or the diplomatic influence of Sweden. 
This practice, ignoble in itself, injured the dignity of the 
state and had a demoralizing influence. Thanks to it, 
Sweden sided sometimes against, but mostly with, France, 
her old ally, who, in Count de la Gardie, had an enthu- 
siastic friend. In 1662, Sweden schemed with France for 
the election of a French prince as king of Poland; in 1667, 
she formed, with England and Holland, a triple alliance 
against France, Louis XIY. soon won back the friendship 
of the government of Sweden, thus having this country as 
his only ally when reaching the climax of his success. At 
last the Swedish promises to send an army against the 
elector of Brandenburg were fulfilled. It was under the 
command of the old and invalid Count Wrangel, and suf- 
fered defeats at Ratenau and Fehrbellin, in 1675. These 
were of little importance, or extension, in themselves, but 
they injured the prestige of Sweden, so long supremely 
victorious on German soil, and caused her enemies to com- 
bine their efforts in order to regain their lost possessions. 

Charles XI. was declared of age at seventeen, in 1672, 
whon he himself took charge of the government, yet for 
a few years standing under the influence of Count de la 
Gardie. King Charles was, as a child, physically weak, 
and the astrologers had prophesied that he would die an 



HISTORY OP SWEDEN 253 

infant. For this reason the queen-dowager, a very ordi- 
nary woman, gave all her attention to have her son develop 
a strong and sound constitution. The child was given its 
own way in everything, casting aside books and rules for 
his individual pleasures. King Charles grew up an igno- 
rant self-willed and headstrong youth, who delighted in 
hunting and reckless riding on horseback. His compan- 
ions, manners and language were not of the choicest order, 
and he remained all his life shy and awkward in demeanor. 
From his thirteenth year he was made acquainted with the 
routine of state affairs, but he lacked the qualifications to 
grasp them in detail. He surrounded himself with mem- 
bers of the lower nobility, but was well at ease only among 
ministers, burghers and peasants. Charles XI. was all his 
life of an unrestrained temper and an indomitable will, com- 
ing to the throne the most ignorant king Sweden had had 
for centuries. But he was pious, sincere and just, and his 
morals pure and severe. Through the hardest of lessons, 
Charles XI. was to develop his great uncultivated gifts, 
to become the liberator of his people and one of its most 
remarkable rulers. 

Sweden had to encounter many enemies after the battle 
of Fehrbellin, and a chain of disasters followed, nearly 
crushing the young king under their weight. Holland, 
Austria, Brandenburg and Denmark attacked the Swedish 
possessions, which were all captured, one after the other. 
Charles was not able to send reinforcements, the navy 
being in a miserable condition, and when rejuvenated, 
through strenuous effort, defeated by the excellent admirals 
Juel, of the Danish, and Tromp, of the Dutch, navy. The 
treasury was empty, the administration in disorder, and 
mistrust and strife reigned supreme. But the young king 



254 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

showed that he wanted to be obeyed, and managed, by 
hard work, to establish order, the Riksdag sacrificing means 
to organize the defence. 

The Danes were successful in their first expeditions on 
land also, their army having undergone a reorganization. 
King Christian V. marched into Scania, while his general, 
Gyldenlceve, invaded Bohuslsen and West Gothland. The 
hostile fleets captured the islands of CEland and Gothland. 
Charles XL, in a sinister state of mind verging on despair, 
at last had his army collected, and entered Hall and, where 
Danish troops were encountered and defeated at Halmstad. 
This gave courage to the Swedes, who soon thought them- 
selves invincible, when commanded by the young king 
himself. Charles received reinforcements through peasant 
troops, and was desirous to meet Christian in open battle. 
But the Danish army in Scania retreated until forced to 
meet the enemy near Lund. Here a bloody and decisive 
battle was fought, more than 8,000 men being killed, and 
resulting in a victory for the Swedes, who took 2,000 pris- 
oners, fifty-one cannon, and the whole hostile camp, Decem- 
ber 3, 1676. 

In the following year Sweden suffered two defeats at 
sea, through the hands of Juel, but won another victory 
on land, at Landskrona, when the Danes lost 3,000 men. 

While Charles XL fought with the courage of despair, 
Louis XIY. was supremely victorious over his enemies, soon 
appearing as the dictator of Europe, when peace was made 
at Nimwegen, in 1679. Finding Charles XL resolved not 
to cede any of his territory, King Louis took a similar 
standpoint in his behalf, but contemptuously neglected to 
let the Swedish ambassadors take any active part in the 
deliberations. Louis XIY, made peace with the emperor, 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 255 

Brandenburg and Denmark on behalf of Sweden, which 
country only ceded a small part of East Pomerania to Bran- 
denburg. Charles XL deeply felt the insolence of the be- 
nevolent dictator, and forced Christian V. to sign a treaty 
of peace at Lund, in 1680, as if Louis XIV. had no part in 
it. An agreement was made that Charles XL should 
marry the sister of Christian V., the beautiful Ulrica 
Eleonore. Through her gentleness, piety and great benev- 
olence, she soon acquired fame as one of the noblest queens 
of Sweden. Ulrica Eleonore led a quiet life, seldom being 
seen at court, where the vain and despotic queeii-dowager 
held the first place. She was never able to win the affec- 
tion of her consort until during her last illness. King 
Charles then, for the first time, understood what a treasure 
he had held unappreciated at his side, and watched over 
her with infinite care, bringing peace and sunshine into her 
last days. After her death, in 1693, the king became a 
prey to deep sorrow and remorse, which threw added gloom 
over his dark countenance. The queen had been active in 
upholding a good relation between the Scandinavian coun- 
tries, often bitterly opposed by the queen-dowager, in the 
interests of Holstein. 

When peace was made, Charles XL immediately took 
action in the matter of reform. He saw his country at the 
verge of utter ruin and the crown unable to help it. The peas- 
ants were losing their rights, one by one, and five-sixths of the 
crown lands were in the possession of the nobles. Brought 
up in ignorance and isolation, finding rottenness and in- 
capability everywhere, it was no wonder that the king 
became strongly imbued by the spirit of absolutism, which 
pervaded all Europe. He followed the example of the mon- 
archs of France and Denmark, learning from them how, by 



256 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

secret agitation and pressure, to make the lower classes 
fervently appeal to him to take the absolute power in his 
hand. His principal adviser was John Gyllenstierna, a 
man of old, celebrated stock, but belonging to the lower 
nobility. Gyllenstierna was one of the greatest and most 
patriotic statesmen of his day. He first attracted attention 
as a champion of the lower nobility against the great lords 
for the restitution of crown lands. Raised to dignities and 
a high station, he never changed his position to the aristo- 
crats in power, who thought they could win him over by 
favors. Seeing the absolute impossibility of reform, with 
the help of the nobles, Gyllenstierna turned to the king, 
whose whole confidence he won, inspiring him with plans 
of a Scandinavian peace policy, and a reform through the 
destruction of the aristocracy. Gyllenstierna died after 
having brought to the king his bride, a union which was 
the work of this able statesman. 

The Riksdag was convoked to meet October 5, 1680. 
Everything commenced quietly. No royal proposition was 
made; but a strong agitation had been set in motion 
among the four Estates, the three lower ones sending in a 
petition to make the royal power absolute, to have a restitu- 
tion of crown lands made, and the government, during the 
king's minority, brought to answer for their acts. Similar 
requests were sent up from the nobility, after many stormy 
scenes at the Riddarhus. Thus, toward the end of the 
Riksdag, with the petitions in, came the royal propositions 
which, when accepted, in one blow crushed the aristocracy, 
as a ruling class, and the antiquated state council, as an 
institution, and established the absolute power of the king. 

According to the resolutions of this memorable Riksdag, 
which marks a new era in Swedish history, a "grand com- 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 257 

mission" was selected which fulfilled its duties with the 
greatest severity. The members of the former government 
and state council were made responsible for their adminis- 
tration, and themselves, or their heirs, sentenced to pay 
smaller or larger sums. Two- thirds of the whole amount 
was afterward given up, but the fines were nevertheless 
great. Count Nils Brahe, the heir of both Peter Brahe and 
Charles Gustavus Wrangel, and the wealthiest man in 
Sweden, had to pay something like $600,000 in fines, an 
immense sum in those days, and was reduced almost to pov- 
erty. The restitution department, assisted by two commis- 
sions, did equally thorough work under the pressure of the 
king. Ten counties and seventy baronies, with a great 
number of other crown lands of various classes, were con- 
fiscated. It cost the higher nobility dearly; Count Magnus 
de la Gar die, the all-powerful favorite of three monarchs, 
lost his immense wealth and died on a little estate left him, 
with one single servant out of his former princely retinue. 
The work of restitution was carried on without cruelty or 
injustice. 

A second restitution was to follow. The propositions 
were arranged at the Riksdag of 1682, in the same way 
as in 1680. This time the lower nobility was to suffer. All 
crown lands rendering less than $600 a year of income had 
been spared; now these were confiscated, without exception. 
In 1686 followed another blow. The dividends on the state 
loans were reduced, and a stipulation made that holders 
of bonds must refund what they, up to that date, had re- 
ceived above the new schedule. The same principle was 
applied in the redemption of mortgaged state lands. These 
new harsh measures were enforced with a great deal of se- 
verity, with incidental cases of injustice. The king showed 



258 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

clemency only to certain parties in stringent need. The 
discontent of the nobles caused many of them to leave the 
country, as, for instance, Count Otto William von Kcenigs- 
marck, son of the conqueror of Prague, and himself the val- 
iant defender of Pomerania against the hostile allies. Their 
example was followed by many nobles of Livonia, the 
measures of the restitution entirely crushing the nobility 
of that province, while its peasants, who were slaves, 
gained their liberty, and had every reason to bless the 
Swedish government. 

The power of absolutism grew steadily stronger. The 
king decided all matters alone, and prepared in advance the 
measures he proposed to the Riksdag, of whose sanction 
he was as independent as of that of the old state council. 
All officers and institutions were also changed in name from 
"state" to "royal" servants and instruments. The uni- 
versity professors were instructed to impress the students 
with the necessity and divine rights of an absolute ruler. 
The nobles were alone in their discontent. The other 
classes, especially the peasants, looked with satisfaction 
and approval on the work which crushed the enemies of 
their liberty and prosperity, and submitted willingly to the 
absolute power because it was in the hands of a patriotic 
king. 

Charles XI. used the revenues of the restitutions prin- 
cipally for the reorganization of army and navy. For the 
former he reintroduced a system which Gustavus Adolphus 
had applied, the so-called Indelningsverk (work of divis- 
ion), which, elaborated upon and firmly established by 
Charles XL, became the foundation of the Swedish army 
system. The whole country was divided into small sections, 
which were each to support an infantry soldier, or a sea- 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 25S 

man, and larger ones to support a cavalry soldier. This 
soldier received a hamlet with earth to till within his sec- 
tion, paying for it by work to the farmers or squires, while 
these paid for his equipment. In times of war the state 
paid his expenses. This changed the troublesome army 
element into useful members of state in times of peace. 
The officers were given small estates by the crown for their 
support. The army consisted, at the death of Charles XI., 
of 65,000 men, well equipped. On the coast of Bleking 
extensive navy yards were built by Count Hans Wacht- 
meister and Eric Dahlberg, in a new town called Carls- 
crona. At great expense, the best fleet ever under Swedish 
command was constructed by Wachtmeister, who enjoyed the 
full confidence of the king. His excellent means wherewith 
to conduct a successful war, Charles XI. used to maintain 
a dignified peace, of which his country was badly in need. 
Bengt Oxenstierna held the reins of diplomacy, which had 
no attraction for Charles XL The old alliance with France 
was broken off and close connections with William of 
Orange established for the maintenance of peace. Sweden 
regained its prestige, rising to a power whose support was 
sought by all. When William became king of England, 
Sweden was a member of the alliance against Louis XIV., 
but contributed to the great European war only a few thou- 
sand soldiers, according to agreement, preserving, together 
with Denmark, an armed neutrality. Charles XL lived 
to the proud moment when the powers selected Sweden as 
an arbiter in the deliberations for peace in Riswick, a 
worthy satisfaction gained over the earlier insolence of 
Louis XIV. 

Charles XL improved the administration by filling the 
offices of the excellent institutions with excellent men. This 



260 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

he obtained by enforcing the necessity of obeying orders $ 
supplying officials of all ranks, from the lowest upward, 
with new regulations which must be obeyed, also regulating 
their salaries. Sweden never had a greater lover of law 
and order than Charles XI., and he used his absolute power 
in their interests, trying to remold the old laws to suit mod- 
ern requirements, and having a new church law, a master- 
piece in its line, introduced. The church itself and its men 
had in Charles XI. an interested friend. New catechism, 
hymn book and ritual were prepared, and a new translation 
of the Bible completed, being published after his death. 
Commerce and mining industries were encouraged, while 
agriculture improved with the improvement of the finan- 
cial conditions of the peasants. Charles XI. was not 
only a "peace king," but a " peasant king," who was 
ardently devoted to the improvement of the education and 
financial circumstances of the country population. He was 
of broadly democratic inclinations, finding his delight in 
moving among the humble and lowly as one of them. The 
peasants, who had been brushed aside by the great and 
powerful, were now brought to the front and took an 
active and important part in the affairs of state. Charles 
ruled over them with a stern husbandry, and asked great 
sacrifices of them for the maintenance of an armed defence; 
but no king has accomplished more in their true interest 
than he, or remains more clearly in their memory and tradi- 
tions. He travelled continually through the country, avoid- 
ing the places where he would be received with ceremony, 
stopping in the houses of the farmers, and enjoying heart- 
ily what comfort these offered. In his appearance he was 
far from prepossessing. His features were not devoid of 
beauty, but gloomy; his figure strong and vigorous, but 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 261 

not impressive. Through an accident while hunting he 
became slightly lame. Although dearth and hard times 
set in during the last years of his reign, causing terrible 
losses of life through hunger and prostration, he could 
plainly tell the beneficent results of his administration. 
Charles XI. took the reins of state when disastrous war 
ravished a country which seemed doomed to destruction. 
He left it reformed, reorganized, rejuvenated and prosper- 
ous at his death, in 1697. 

The Period of Political Grandeur in Swedish history 
falls within the epoch of the history of art which has been 
called Barocco, an unbalanced offspring of the Renaissance, 
and a style characterized by great complicity, pretensions 
and ambitions, a renaissance in wigs of formidable propor- 
tions. After the great victories of the Thirty Years' War, 
it seems as if the interchange of influences between art, 
literature, science, politics and religion was increased. The 
whole era becomes a Barocco period of bombast and chau- 
vinism, the climax being reached in the form of the absolute 
monarchy of the age. 

In Sweden, as elsewhere, there was no lack of men of 
ability and brilliant genius; but, influenced by the spirit 
of their time, the works of most of them were bombastic 
and chauvinistic, like the artistic and political aspirations 
of the era. The artists were, as were at first the scholars, 
mostly foreigners. The native and imported scholars 
were characterized by great learning and versatility, but 
abused their genius by Utopian theories and vainglorious 
dreams, and violated the laws of history and sound 
research. 

Olof Rudbeck was not only the most learned and bril- 
liantly gifted scholar of his day, but his genius also embod 



262 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

Sea the eccentricities of the period in gigantic outlines. He 
was born at Westeros, in 1630, his father being the learned 
bishop, Johannes Rudbeckius. As a boy, he gave evi- 
dence of rare artistic and mechanic talents. He made 
drawings of exquisite designs, constructed clock mecha- 
nisms of wood, and was a skilled musician. His character 
was proud and violent. At sixteen he was through with 
his college course and ready to enter the university. The 
youth could not stand the change from his coarse jacket 
and fur coat into a coat of broadcloth with buttons such 
as the students wore, and was for his overbearing manner 
punished by his severe father with an additional year of 
college work. At the University of Upsala he caused from 
the start great surprise by his knowledge in all subjects. 
He devoted his attention chiefly to natural science, which, 
in that day, was a neglected study, and soon excelled his 
professors. 

At twenty, Rudbeck made a scientific discovery of great 
importance, which caused a stir in the whole learned world. 
By his discovery and theory of the lymphatic ducts, the 
blood circulation of the human body received a satisfactory 
explanation. Before the circle of scholars which surrounded 
Queen Christine, Rudbeck was allowed to demonstrate his 
anatomical discoveries, in 1652. Queen Christine, who 
earlier had been an admirer of his beautiful voice and 
musical abilities, loaded him with praise and gave him the 
means for a journey abroad. Rudbeck returned, in 1660, 
to Sweden, and was appointed professor of medicine at the 
University of Upsala. He planned the first botanic garden 
in the country, donating it to the university. He had illus-= 
trations made of the native plants and commenced a learned 
work on botany. The first hall of anatomy was erected 






HISTORY OF SWEDEN 263 

according to his proposition. As rector of the university, 
he established several important reforms, in spite of opposi- 
tion, but supported by the chancellor, Magnus Gabriel de la 
Gardie, who was his friend and protector. To the stupen- 
dous mastery of all sciences, Rudbeck added a skill and 
cleverness in various branches of practical activity which 
made him carry, with honor, the nickname of " master at 
all trades." He was an excellent financier, who succeeded 
in restoring the sound economy of the university. He built 
a fish pond, from which the tables of the learned professors 
were regularly supplied with fish. A book store and a book- 
printing establishment were erected by him, and for a time 
run at his expense. He repaired windmills, built houses, 
provided the university town with water works and street 
pavement, also arranging its postal service. Rudbeck was 
one of the finest composers and singers of his day, conduct- 
ing the musical exercises at the university. He made fire- 
works and compasses for the Swedish navy, built fountains 
and organs, was a good poet and painter and an excellent 
etcher and drawer. 

Rudbeck does not owe his great renown to his mastery 
of any of these trades, arts or sciences, nor to any discov- 
ery, reform or invention by his versatile genius. It was his 
monumental work, "Atland or Manheim," generally called 
"The Atlantica," which made him world-famous. For 
centuries one had believed in the statement made by Jor- 
danes, and based upon traditions current among his people, 
that the Goths who conquered Rome had migrated from the 
North, and that their ancestors, from the remotest period, 
were inhabitants of Sweden. Johannes Magnus con- 
structed a line of Swedish kings, beginning with Magog, 
the son of Japhet, on the basis of which the sons of Gus° 



264 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

tavus Yasa, Eric XIV., and Charles IX., had accepted 
their high ordinals, In the time of Rudbeck it was consid- 
ered a supremely praiseworthy effort to glorify the father- 
land by strengthening its claims to a high antiquity. Rud- 
beck, the remarkable savant and able poet, got his head 
turned by the political grandeur of his country. He had 
in his youth read the story of Atlantis, found in Plato. 
Rudbeck undertook to prove, in "The Atlantica," that the 
lost island, with its ancient ideal state from which the gods 
of antiquity were supposed to hail, was identical with Swe- 
den. The work, in four large volumes, was written in Swed- 
ish and Latin of parallel columns. The first volume was 
printed in 1675, Rudbeck having made the types himself. 
In Sweden the work was greeted with an enthusiasm which 
had no bounds. The second volume was published by 
funds which Charles XI. with great generosity placed at 
the author's disposal. The third volume was dedicated 
to the youthful Charles XII., a true child of the chauvin- 
istic epoch, who hailed the book with delight. The fourth 
volume was in press when Upsala was destroyed by fire, 
in 1702. The aged Rudbeck led the battle against the 
ravaging element, by supreme exertions saving the uni- 
versity halls, at the expense of his home, his press and 
manuscripts, and the rest of the town. Rudbeck died in 
the autumn of the same year. 

The elaborate construction which Rudbeck had com- 
pleted by means of ingenious deductions and learned guess- 
work succumbed with the political grandeur of Sweden. 
''The Atlantica," which once had its place beside the Bible 
on the tables of the mighty ones, was ridiculed and for- 
gotten. On the continent of Europe, where similar books 
had been written in Germany and Holland, making for 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 265 

these respective countries similar claims, "The Atlantica" 
was at first received with surprise and admiration, later 
with doubt and criticism. The work, in spite of its mis- 
takes, proved a foundation for archaeological research, which 
gradually was developed into a science. In order to sup- 
port the boldest and most impossible theories, the almost 
unparalleled power of combination of an eminent genius 
has brought together material which for the first time gave 
the suggestion of relationship between the Teutonic and the 
classical languages of Greece and Rome. Rudbeck was 
also the first to point out the unmistakable resemblance of 
the Old Norse and classical mythologies, as to the origin 
of which modern scholars have reached no absolute cer- 
tainty, but radically different conclusions. The importance 
which Rudbeck placed upon popular customs and traditions 
was too great, but it has favorably influenced later students 
of ethnography and folk lore. 

If Rudbeck had limited himself to the demonstration that 
Sweden has been not the cradle of all races, but the original 
home of the Teutonic branch of the Aryan race, he might 
have been able to offer a theory, the truth of which mod- 
ern science lacks, and forever may lack, the resources to 
disprove. 

Rudbeck had not been entirely without opponents in 
Sweden. The most noted among them was John Pering- 
skiold, who criticised the opinion expressed by Rudbeck that 
the Runes were the oldest alphabet of the world. Pering- 
skiold was a fine Icelandic scholar, and the first editor of 
Snorre Sturleson's "Heimskringla." 

A typical and highly valuable illustrated work from this 

period is the "Svecia Antiqua et Hodierna," by Eric Dahl- 

berg, the renowned quartermaster of Charles X. The text, 

xx VZ 



266 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

written by Dahlberg and translated into Latin by several 
scholars, was never published, the magnificent engravings 
not before 1716. The latter give an impressive portrayal 
of architectural Sweden during the reigns of the three 
Charleses, but are not quite reliable, as some of the 
castles and palaces in this work are provided with ad- 
ditions and embellishments which were never more than 
projected. 

There is no family who has wielded a greater influence 
over the Swedish church than that of Benzelius. The 
founder of the house, Eric Benzelius the Elder, and three 
of his sons were archbishops of Sweden, and two of his 
grandsons bishops of the state church. The first Arch- 
bishop Benzelius, born in 1632, was the son of a peasant, 
and took his name from the farm of Bentseby, of Lulea 
parish, in Norrland, where he was born; he and the three 
of his seven sons who were archbishops refused to be 
ennobled, the other members of the family adopting the 
name of Benzelstierna. The earlier generations of the 
family produced men of great talent and power, to whom 
the third one, although consisting of able men, could not 
be compared. The influence of this family in matters of 
religion, science and culture was strongly felt during the 
period of more than one century. The most remarkable 
member was Eric Benzelius the Younger, one of the most 
learned, active and patriotic men ever born in Sweden. 
Like the other members of the family, he perfected his 
education at foreign universities and made the personal 
acquaintance of Leibnitz, Thomasius, Malebranche, and 
other celebrated scholars. He was a historian, literary 
critic and philologist of merit, writing a history of Sweden 
and preparing an edition of Codex Argenteus, published 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 267 

in London after his death. He was highly appreciated by 
Charles XII., and was a friend of Polhem and Swedenborg, 
being married to a sister of the latter. Eric Benzelius was 
appointed archbishop, but died, in 1742, before he had 
entered office. 



CHAPTER XIII 
Period of Political Grandeur — Charles XII 

CHARLES XII. , the most famous of Swedish kings, 
was a boy of fifteen at the death of his father. He 
was born June 17, 1682, at the castle of Stockholm. 
The astrologers declared that Sweden was to receive a new 
war-lord, and that time they were not mistaken. Charles 
XII. was born in the same year as the absolute monarchy 
of Sweden, which power he was to abuse in such a great 
measure. Shortly after his birth, one of the speakers of the 
knightly -chapter house, Justice Gyllencreutz, said while 
warning against the consequences of an absolute power: 
"A king may come who follows his own will, being more 
fond of war than peace, or utterly extravagant. History 
proves that changes of the constitution generally are beset 
by dangerous consequences; yea, that they often have 
brought destruction to the country and its people." These 
words were prophetic. 

The early education of Charles was supervised by his 
mother, sweet Ulrica Eleonore, who taught him piety, 
modesty, gentleness and justice by her own example. He 
participated with earnestness in the morning and evening 
prayers, kneeling before the only Lord he ever acknowl- 
edged as his superior. His mother died when Charles was 
seven years of age, but the devotion in which he held her 
(268) 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 269 

he fixed upon his sisters, Hedvig Sophie and Ulrica Eleo- 
nore, but especially upon the former. His religious feeling 
was deep and sincere, and he evinced early a love of truth, 
justice and pure morals which, like his brotherly devotion, 
followed him through life. The most remarkable trait in 
a son of Charles XI. was his power of self-control; but he 
was his father's superior also in intellectual gifts, such 
as a ready memory, a good apprehension and a sharp dis- 
cernment. His faults were early developed, and met, after 
the death of his parents, no restraint. He was taciturn, 
unapproachable, proud, self-willed and headstrong. He had 
from his grandfather inherited an ambition for the vain 
glory of war, which was led astray by his unrestrained power 
of imagination. From the age of fi.ve he was taught by the 
learned professor, Andreas Norcopensis, ennobled under the 
name of Nordenhielm, to whom he was very devoted and 
under whose guidance he received a good general educa- 
tion. The plain, able scholar influenced the young prince 
in a wholesome manner. When his teacher asked him how 
an honest man ought to be, the pupil, then seven years of 
age, answered: "He should be gentle but of great courage; 
fierce like a lion to his enemies, gentle like a lamb to those 
at home." To the question if it were not better to avoid 
dangers in order to save one's life, the little Charles an- 
swered: 'Wo, it would be a shame to live in such a 
manner. ' ' 

Charles XI. had drawn an outline of the course which 
the education of his son was to follow. The first place 
was given to study of the Bible and the Christian doctrines 
and the severe practice of religion. The prince was to 
learn Swedish and German early, to receive instruction 
in the laws and constitution of his country, and in the 



270 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

science of war, and to be trained in the arts of military 
drill, fencing and riding on horseback. He soon acquired 
the faculty of speaking Latin fluently, in the ordinary 
mechanical way, and learned some French. When his 
first governor, Eric Lindskiold, tried to interest him in the 
latter language by pointing out its usefulness in diplomatic 
intercourse with the French ambassador, the prince an- 
swered : "If I meet the king of France I will converse with 
him in his own language. When a French ambassador 
comes here, it is more appropriate that he learns Swedish 
on my account than I French on his." His favorite stud- 
ies were strategy and mathematics, which he made under 
the Swedish general, Charles Magnus Stuart. He often 
said that the one who was ignorant of mathematics was 
only a half human being. Charles was fond of riding the 
horses of his father, and followed the latter on his adven- 
turous journeys and hunts. When only twelve years of age 
he killed his first bear. He early developed the reckless 
courage which made him so famous. Charles was exceed- 
ingly fond of reading the Eddie poems and the old hero 
Sagas of the North. He said he wanted to resemble the 
ancient hero kings, and wished he had, like many of them, 
a brother who would remain at home to rule the country 
in peace, while he, with his warriors, made a tour of the 
world. The prescription, made by his father, that the 
prince should be taught to make a moderate use of his 
absolute power, was, if carried out, of little consequence. 
Charles mourned deeply the losses of his mother and of his 
first teacher, Nbrdenhielm, which followed close upon each 
other, seeking, after that, more the company of his father. 
Charles XI. had a long private conversation with his son 
shortly before his death, pointing out the men in whom 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 271 

he could confide. Among these Charles Piper occupied 
a conspicuous place. He remained ever the adviser of 
Charles XII., but never had his full confidence. The enig- 
matic king confided in nobody, and passed through life 
without opening his heart to any one. 

Charles XI. had appointed a government to reign dur- 
ing the minority of his son, to be presided over by Queen- 
dowager Hedvig Eleonore. But the Estates of the Riks- 
dag, at the request of the nobility, declared Charles XII. 
of age when only fifteen. The young king placed the crown 
upon his head with his own hands at the coronation, and 
took charge of the government in November, 1697. Bengt 
Oxenstierna remained at the head of foreign affairs as the 
president of the chancery, while Charles took personal 
interest in continuing the life work of his father, the 
restitution of crown lands, which still went on. Charles 
Piper, who had been quite active in obtaining an early 
majority for the king, was raised to the dignity of a count, 
and became one of the most influential members of the state 
council. Charles was not influenced by anybody in spite 
of his youth. He listened to what the councillors had to 
say, then announced his resolutions with terse independ- 
ence. He refused firmly the appeals of the nobility to re- 
duce the demands of the work of restitution. He abolished 
the practice of torture, in spite of the unanimous vote of the 
state council to the contrary. When the aged Bengt Oxen- 
stierna was anxious to have annulled a treaty with France, al- 
ready signed, the young king answered tersely: 'You have 
heard my opinion; I am the one who signed the treaty.' ' 
Charles took, in general, little interest in foreign affairs, 
except those concerning Holstein, to the duke of which 
country his elder sister was married. 



272 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

The exuberant spirits of the youthful Charles found an 
outlet in daring exploits and plays of war. The somewhat 
older man, Count Arvid Bernhard Horn, the commander of 
the royal body-guard, took an active part in these as the 
most intimate comrade of the king. They went bear-hunt- 
ing together, with wooden forks as their only weapon, fought 
naval battles with hand-spurts, made breakneck rides on 
horseback, etc. When the king was near being drowned 
in one of these " naval battles," the only ones that Charles 
XII. ever fought, he was saved by Arvid Horn, who pulled 
him up by the hair. When Horn in some other game was 
badly hurt and taken ill, the king kept the night watch at 
his bedside. Upon the visits of Duke Frederic of Holstein, 
the two young princes indulged in escapades of the wildest 
kind, if one were to believe the reports made by the foreign 
ambassadors at Stockholm to their respective governments, 
and chiefly founded upon hearsay. His application to state 
affairs was almost constant and very arduous, for which 
reason these reports of the escapades and adventures of the 
youthful king are probably wild exaggerations, or mere 
fables. 

The reports of a young inexperienced king who gave 
up his time to sport and pastimes spread abroad, and the 
enemies of Sweden were led to believe that an opportune 
moment was come for an attack on the empire which held 
the balance of power in Northern Europe. Peter the Great, 
one of the most remarkable men of modern history, was 
czar of Russia. Engaged in his heroic task of reorganizing 
his barbarous empire to a modern European state, he was 
desirous of obtaining harbors on the coast of the Baltic, 
from which sea he was cut off by the Swedish possessions. 
August, a cousin of Charles XII., who was elector of Sax- 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 273 

ony and king of Poland, was anxious to take possession 
of Livonia. King Frederic IV. of Denmark, also a cousin of 
Charles, wished to suppress the duke of Holstein, who had 
gained independence, thanks to the assistance of Sweden. 
Czar Peter and King August entered into a secret alliance 
with each other. While negotiations for continued peace with 
Sweden were still pending, the Russians secretly crossed 
the boundary in Ingermanland, Saxon troops entered Li- 
vonia, and the king of Denmark took possession of Hol- 
stein. The Swedish council of state was amazed at this 
triple danger. Charles simply remarked that it was strange 
that both of his cousins wanted war, and expressed the hope 
that God would support him in his righteous cause. 

Charles XII. was eighteen years of age when he entered 
this stupendous conflict. He was tall and slender, but 
broad-shouldered; he had a sympathetic face, dark-blue 
eyes, thin brown hair, and a carriage expressing courage 
and an indomitable spirit. Upon entering actual warfare, 
Charles renounced all pleasures and comforts. Sharing the 
severe discipline of his soldiers, he slept in a tent, ate of 
their rude food, and drank nothing but water. The wig, 
considered so indispensable in those days, was laid aside, 
and he dressed, like the men of his body-guard, in a coat 
of coarse blue cloth with large brass buttons and yellow 
lining. His long sword was hung at a yellow leather 
girdle. He wore high boots and yellow trousers made 
of skin. In battle he was always found where the danger 
was most imminent. 

Charles turned first against Denmark. A Swedish fleet 
of forty-eight ships joined the naval forces of equal strength 
which the Swedish allies, England and Holland, had sent 
to meet it in the Sound. A more powerful combination has 



274 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

never been seen before or after in Scandinavian waters. 
Charles embarked with his troops on one hundred Scanian 
ships and landed at Elsinore, August 4, 1699. He was 
impatient to reach shore, jumped into the water, which 
reached to his arms, and was followed by his troops, 
who carried their weapons high above the water. A sud- 
den attack was made on the Danish troops on shore, who 
turned and fled. The Swedes made a temporary camp 
and prepared themselves for a march on Copenhagen. 
King Frederic was struck with terror and hastened to 
make peace with the duke of Holstein, who was left in 
undisturbed possession of his country through the treaty 
of peace at Traventhal. Charles withdrew his troops at 
once, although reluctantly, having wished to crush the 
power of Denmark. He had maintained the strictest dis- 
cipline in his camp, and treated the inhabitants of the coun- 
try with gentleness. The Danish peasants, who abundantly 
brought necessary provisions, said to the king: "You do 
us no harm because you are the son of our pious Ulrica 
Eleonore." The king answered: "What I have done I 
have been forced to do. But rest assured that I shall from 
this day be the upright friend of your king." 

Charles now turned against Russia. With an army of 
somewhat more than 8,000 men he sailed for Ingermanland 
to attack the invaders, at least five times as many in num- 
bers, who were laying siege to the town of Narva. The 
majority of the Russian troops consisted of serfs who were 
taken directly from their work and were without any mil- 
itary training. This army of undisciplined serfs was to 
a great extent commanded by foreign adventurers. The 
news of the approach of the Swedish troops brought con- 
sternation. Several of the Russian officers shed tears, while 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 275 

the czar quickly left his army to gather more troops. The 
remarkable battle of Narva was fought November 20, 1700. 
King Charles offered the enemies a battle in the open field, 
but when they refused to accept or to come out, he attacked 
them in their trenches, which formed a semi-circle around 
the town of Narva, with the wings touching the river of the 
same name. The war-cry of the Swedes was: "With the 
help of God!" Their attack was favored by a snowstorm, 
which blew in the faces of the Russians, blinding them. The 
enemies could tell that the Swedes were few in numbers, 
but thought that reinforcements must be on the way. The 
trenches were filled with bundles of fagots, the ramparts 
were mounted, and the Russians thrown into confusion. 
The Russian cavalry fled at the opening of the artillery fire. 
The rest, crushed in between the walls of the town and their 
aggressors, tried to escape on every side. The Swedes soon 
had cut the immense Russian line of troops in twain at the 
centre. The half which consisted of the right wing moved 
down to the bridge over the Narva River. But the bridge 
gave way under the weight of the first 3,000 men, who 
found their graves in the river below. The rest of the right 
wiog was hedged in between the Swedes and the river. 
The regiments of the Russian guards, who were the most 
experienced of the troops, fought bravely for some time, 
but great confusion ensued among the others, the soldiers 
wanting to kill their foreign officers, whom they blamed for 
the catastrophe. The chief commander, Duke de Croi, with 
several other foreigners, for this reason surrendered to the 
king. 

The Russian soldiers of the right wing, abandoned by 
their superior officers, made heroic efforts to defend them- 
selves behind barricades which they erected for the mo- 



276 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

ment. King Charles hastened to the spot, but was very 
near losing his life in passing through a swamp. He sank 
so deep that the water rose to his neck, and he could save 
himself only by leaving his horse, his sword, and one of his 
heavy boots behind in the mud. Without in the least im- 
proving his condition, the king took another horse and 
sought his way to the heart of the battle. The Russians 
were killed in masses, but did not surrender before King 
Charles had taken a Russian battery, thus depriving them 
of the last hope of being reunited with the left wing. The 
latter, who kept in the vicinity of their trenches, had fought 
with a good deal of courage. At nightfall two officers 
were sent from the right wing to ask the king for an 
armistice, which was granted. King Charles spent the 
night in his wet clothes, by the bivouac fire, on the ground, 
his head resting in the lap of one of his soldiers. In the 
morning, before dawn, two Russian generals arrived, de- 
manding free leave for the remainder of the right wing. 
This was granted, but the superior officers had to remain 
as prisoners of war. The commander of the left wing also 
opened negotiations. Free leave was granted them upon 
the surrender of their arms. It must have been an im- 
pressive sight to see the body of 12,000 Russians, with 
heads uncovered, who passed in line by only half as many 
Swedes, depositing their banners and arms at the feet of 
Charles XII. It was a wise plan to keep as prisoners only 
the superior officers, for the Swedes had not the means at 
hand to watch and feed so many prisoners as those who 
were allowed a free leave. In the battle of ISTarva 18,000 
Russians were killed or captured; the hostile camp, bag- 
gage and artillery fell into the hands of the victors. 
Charles XII. made his solemn entry into Narva, where 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 277 

Te Deum was sung in the cathedral. Charles with his own 
hand crossed out all expressions of vainglory over the suc- 
cess or disdain of the vanquished which occurred in the 
official account of the victory to be sent to Stockholm. 

In the following year Charles XII. turned against his 
third enemy, King August. Saxon troops, 10,000 strong, 
were joined by 19,000 Russians, and had taken a strongly 
fortified position on the southern shore of the river Dvina. 
Charles decided to cross the river from Livonia and attack 
the enemy. The famous crossing of the Dvina was planned 
in all details by Eric Dahlberg, the venerable hero and 
engineer from the wars of Charles X. and Charles XI. 
Baron Dahlberg died not long after this memorable event. 
It was June 27, 1701. The Swedish infantry was carried 
across in prams, the cavalry on fleet-bridges provided with 
wooden walls on hinges, which, when erect, were a protec- 
tion against the fire of the enemy, and, when let down, 
formed gangways for the landing. In front of all boats 
loaded with hay and straw were sent out, which were 
ignited, sending a thick, disagreeable smoke in the face of 
the enemy. The artillery in the prams kept up a disastrous 
fire. Charles XII. was one of the first to land, and opened 
the attack when only half of his infantry had reached the 
shore. The Russians soon scattered in wild flight. The 
Saxons withstood three powerful attacks, but at last fol- 
lowed the bad example set by their allies. The battle was 
fought and won before the Swedish cavalry had reached 
the shore. The bountiful provisions of the scattered army 
were captured. The crossing of the Dvina was executed 
under the direction of Charles Magnus Stuart and Count 
Magnus Stenbock. 

The victories of the young hero king and his valiant 



278 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

soldiers aroused the admiration Of all Europe, and much 
sympathy was expressed for Sweden, who had so success- 
fully warded off a deceitful and unjust attack. Charles 
XII. received offers of peace from his enemies, but he did 
not accept them. He did not believe that his treacherous 
neighbors would keep their promises, and he was no doubt 
right. He ought to have crushed Russia first, but his vic- 
tory over Czar Peter had been too easily acquired to make 
him realize the genius, power and resources of this semi- 
barbarous enemy. Charles considered King August a more 
formidable opponent, which was a mistake; but his sus- 
picion that the latter would attack him from behind if he 
entered Russia would probably have proved to be well 
founded had circumstances permitted. So Charles invaded 
Poland, resolved to gain by the interior conflict which was 
disturbing the peace of that country. He wanted to de- 
throne August and select a prince who would keep faith 
with Sweden. 

The Polish empire had not taken any active part in the 
war against Sweden, but Charles XII. demanded that the 
Poles should prove their good faith by dethroning August 
and by choosing a native king. When they refused, he let 
his army enter Poland. For four years King Charles re- 
mained there, marching from one part of the country to the 
other. He conquered the Polish capitals of Warsaw and 
Cracow, and several other fortified places, winning over 
a considerable group within the nobility. In 1704 the Diet 
of Warsaw was called, at which the Polish nobles, in the 
presence of Swedish troops under the command of Count 
Arvid Horn, were compelled to deprive August of his 
crown and elect a new king according to the instructions 
of King Charles. The new king chosen was the noble, but 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 279 

incapable Stanislav Leczinski, who belonged to an aristo- 
cratic family of little influence and few connections. He 
was an upright and highly educated man, but lacked en- 
ergy. King August was not willing to abdicate, for which 
reason King Charles pursued him into his hereditary land. 
The line of march to Saxony went through Silesia, a neu- 
tral country belonging to the empire of Austria. As the 
army of August had been allowed to pass this country, 
Charles argued that the same right must be granted him 
and his troops. At the river Oder, Charles was met by 
a number of persecuted Protestants, who, kneeling and 
weeping, prayed for his assistance in pleading their cause 
before the emperor. Charles promised them to do so, and 
kept his word. 

The Swedish army entered Saxony in the year 1706. 
The inhabitants, who had in a clear memory the acts of reck- 
lessness and cruelty committed by the troops of John Baner, 
fled for their lives, taking along all the property that could 
be moved. To their great surprise, they saw the Swedes 
encamp themselves as quietly as in time of serenest peace. 
Wo violence was committed. Nothing was taken, except 
in exchange for money. But a heavy war tax was imposed, 
which made both August and his people inclined to seek an 
early end of the war. 

Thanks to the means raised in this manner, the Swedish 
army was provided with an entirely new outfit of clothes 
and furnished with necessary provisions. Every regiment 
established a savings bank of its own, in which the soldiers 
deposited their earnings. The castle of Alt-Ranstsedt was 
the headquarters of Charles XII., situated close by the 
memorable battlefield of Lutzen. The sojourn of Charles 
XII. in Saxony was an incident of universal importance 



280 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

to the history of Europe. He had with his soldiers ap- 
proached the scene of a conflict which was shaking the 
whole of Western and Southern Europe. The situation 
was such that it for the moment hung at the point of the 
victorious sword of Charles XII. The great question was 
whether he was resolved to take an active part in the uni- 
versal conflict. Charles was besieged at his headquarters 
by princes, warriors and statesmen, who came to pay their 
respects, desirous of winning his favor and of getting an 
idea of his plans. The Swedish invasion of Saxony was 
highly beneficial to the interests of France, and Louis XIV. 
was the first to admit it, anxious to make the stay of 
Charles as long as possible, because it had caused a stand- 
still in the hostilities against France. The Duke of Marl- 
borough was among the visitors of Charles XII. He 
brought a letter of courtesy from Queen Anne, who wrote 
that the letter "came not from her chancery but from her 
heart, and was written by her own hand." She longed 
to meet the famous king personally. The duke's errand was 
to find out whether Charles was to join the fighting forces 
of Western Europe or to attack Russia. He was glad to 
learn that the latter move was the one which the king had 
in mind. Although the two great warriors expressed mu- 
tual admiration, neither was sympathetically impressed by 
the other. Charles XII. thought Marlborough looked "too 
fine" for a soldier, while the latter thought the rude sim- 
plicity of the king an affectation by which to obtain noto- 
riety. On account of the great influx of distinguished visi- 
tors, the style of living was quite different at the royal 
headquarters of Alt-Ranstsedt to what it was during the 
Polish and Russian wars. But the king kept up the heavy 
military drills and long individual expeditions on horseback, 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 281 

wliich he thought indispensable. One of the first ones of 
the latter which he undertook was to visit the battlefield 
of Lutzen. The king remembered distinctly all that he 
had read about the famous battle, and made clear to his 
generals the various positions of the two armies. At 
Schwedenstein, the place where Gustavus Adolphus fell, 
he lingered for a long while in silence. At last he said: 
"I always have tried to live as he did. May God grant 
me the grace of dying in like manner." 

King August was satisfied to conclude a treaty of peace, 
which was signed at Alt-Ranstsedt. He renounced the 
crown of Poland and recognized Stanislav Leczinski as 
the legitimate king. August turned over John Reinhold 
Patkul, a Livonian traitor, who during the reign of 
Charles XI. had made himself disagreeably conspicuous, 
and who had been intriguing against Sweden ever since. 
Charles XII. was, in gentleness and justice, far in advance 
of his contemporaries, but he made an exception to his 
ordinary course of clemency in the case of Patkul, who 
was executed according to the cruel practice of the time. 
When the Swedish army left their camp, after peace was 
made, the regiments were for many miles followed by the 
grateful inhabitants, who, with tears in their eyes, gave 
evidence of their friendship. The reason was that the good- 
natured soldiers of the regular army had followed the habits 
of their country in assisting their temporary hosts in their 
various rural pursuits. The Swedes were greeted by the 
people of Silesia with great enthusiasm, out of gratitude for 
the improved conditions which the emperor had granted 
them, at the request of the king. Charles XII. thus 
made good, in a measure, the acts of violence committed 
by the Swedish army during the Thirty Years' War, 



282 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

and proved that he had at heart the cause of religious 
liberty. 

Czar Peter was now to be punished, when it was too 
late. The Russians had invaded the Baltic provinces and 
captured the fortress of JSToeteborg, which Czar Peter gave 
the new and significant name of Schluesselburg. The new 
Russian capital of St. Petersburg, with formidable for- 
tresses, was founded in 1703. The laborers were carried 
away by force from the various parts of the immense em- 
pire. They died in great numbers of prostration and of 
fevers, the Swedes also doing their best to impede the 
progress of the work. The vacancies were rapidly rilled 
by new multitudes. While the Swedish king was fighting 
in Poland, the provinces of Ingermanland, Esthonia and 
Livonia were overrun by the Russians, who devastated the 
country with acts of cruelty. Dorpat was captured and 
Narva fell after a bloody conflict, being bravely defended 
by Rudolph Horn. The Russians destroyed the Swedish 
navy of the Lake Peipus and penetrated to the province 
of Courland where Charles XII. had left a considerable 
detachment of troops. The plan of Czar Peter to conquer 
Courland and cut off Charles from the connections with his 
empire was frustrated by Genera] Adam Louis Lewen- 
haupt. 1 He met a formidable Russian force, several times 
as numerous as his own, at Gemauerthof, near Mitau, 
which he routed, in 1705. 



1 Lewenhaupt is a German translation of the old Swedish family 
name of Leijonhufvud, and carried by a branch whose members held 
the dignity of counts. Almost similar is the derivation of Von Rosen 
from Tre RosOr, etc. During the Period of Political Grandeur, and later, 
it was a habit of certain branches of the old Swedish nobility to trans- 
late or Germanize their names in this way. The burghers and clergy- 
men followed the custom when being ennobled, Archaic spelling was 
preserved, or adopted, in most cases. 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 283 

Sweden stood alone in her struggle with Russia. The 
old alliance with England and Holland was no longer in 
existence. The continental powers were too busily engaged 
in the West to assist in checking the rising power of the 
Eastern giant. For the limited resources of Sweden he was 
too big already. Charles XII. had with him a stately and 
well-equipped army of 44,000^ which, by contemporary 
authors, was pronounced to have consisted of the finest 
soldiers of the world. Charles was to attack Russia from 
Poland, for the devastated Baltic provinces could no longer 
support an army with the necessary provisions. General 
Lewenhaupt was to join him from Livonia with an army 
of 12,000 men and ample provisions. Another Swedish 
commander, General Lybecker, was to attack and destroy 
St. Petersburg, with an army of the same size, from his 
headquarters in Finland. The total of Swedish troops dis- 
tributed in various directions amounted to 100,000, the 
largest regular army Sweden ever had put up. Charles 
had concluded to engage semi-barbarous allies in a bat- 
tle against a semi-barbarous enemy. In 1707 he en- 
tered into an alliance with Turkey, and, about the same 
time, another with Mazeppa, an old ambitious Cossack 
leader who wanted to establish his supremacy over the 
steppes of Russia. The plans of Charles XII. for the in- 
vasion of Russia have often been severely criticised, but 
competent judges of our day have declared that they were 
not only elaborate but highly ingenious. They miscarried 
on account of arrangements which could not be made ac- 
cording to expectations, and on account of Czar Peter's prac- 
tice of laying bare and waste the parts of his own country 
through which the invaders were to pass. Furthermore, 
Charles had sent home to Sweden several of his best gen- 



284 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

erals, such as Arvid Horn and Magnus Stenbock. This 
was done after the successes in Poland, and was a good 
thing in itself, for the men mentioned were exactly those 
who were destined to save the very existence and honor 
of a country which was deprived of its political grandeur 
through the heedlessness of King Charles. But without 
them he was surrounded by inexperienced men only. 
Charles Gustavus Rehnskiold was the most conspicuous 
of these, a valiant but reckless man, who only understood 
certain details of the elaborate expedition. 

When the Swedes were approaching Russian territory, 
Czar Peter made offers of peace which the French ambas- 
sador urged Charles to accept. Charles answered: "He 
does not mean it. He wishes the world to believe that he 
wants peace and I war." Czar Peter had organized his 
army through a wonderful exertion of energy, built new 
fortresses and strengthened the old ones, enforced discipline 
and gathered ammunition. Able officers had been trained 
in the repeated conflicts with the Swedes. These took the 
lead of the army movements. 

Charles left Poland with somewhat more than 30,000 
men, entering Lithuania and chasing the Russians before 
him. A last great victory was won by Charles XII. at 
Holovzin in Lithuania, in 1708. The Swedish army crossed 
the Dniepr and marched to Mohilev. Charles lingered in 
this place for a month, anxiously awaiting the arrival of 
General Lewenhaupt. The latter remained in Livonia dur- 
ing all this time, the letter ordering him to join the central 
army not reaching him in due time. The march was con- 
tinued toward Smolensk, but King Charles thought that he 
could only reach Moscow over that route with the greatest 
difficulty, and changed his course, marching toward the 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 285 

Ukraine to join Mazeppa and the Tartars. Mazeppa had 
been vexed by the long delay, and was, besides, not able 
to gather the forces which he had promised. Czar Peter 
captured his stronghold, and Mazeppa reached the Swedish 
army more like a fugitive than an ally. The expedition 
of General Lybecker against St. Petersburg proved a fail- 
ure. Lewenhaupt, who had at last received his order, 
moved into Russia. At Liesna he met a hostile army con- 
siderably larger than his own. After a fierce battle, which 
involved a great loss of life, Lewenhaupt broke through the 
Russian lines. He had been forced to destroy the great 
amount of provisions which he had gathered, and reached 
the army of King Charles in a very different state than was 
anticipated. The king found himself in a difficult position, 
being cut off from all connections with his country and in 
want of provisions. 

The battle of Pultowa, which was fought June 28, 1709, 
decided for centuries the contest over the political suprem- 
acy of Northern Europe. Charles XII., with his army, 
which had been reduced to 18,000 men, laid siege to the 
important town of Pultowa, by the river Yorskla. The 
Russian army, 50,000 strong, under the command of Czar 
Peter, hastened toward the enemy. The fear of the terri- 
ble Swedes was as yet so strong in them that they did not 
risk an attack, but built a strongly fortified camp. King 
Charles, with his army in distress, further reduced to only 
12,000 men, and in want even of ammunition, saw no other 
way than to fight. He was himself wounded in the foot 
and unable to take command in person. General Rehn- 
skiold, who led the cavalry, acted as general commander 
during the battle, which position he was not able to fill; 
Lewenhaupt commanded the right wing with decided sue- 






286 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 



cess. He forced the enemy to abandon three of its seven 
forts, and saw it once inclined to leave in flight. The left 
wing of the Swedish army was brought into disorder and 
receded. King Charles, who suffered greatly from his 
wounded foot, was carried on a litter between the lines, 
encouraging his soldiers and dealing out new orders. The 
litter was soon shattered, and the horse which the king 
mounted was shot under him. He saved himself by accept- 
ing the horse of one of his officers. Rehnskiold, who ap- 
peared nervous and confused, offered only a lame assistance 
with the cavalry. While riding back and forth in his heed- 
less anxiety to be useful, without obtaining his object, he 
rode into the Russian lines and was made a prisoner. The 
same fate befell Count Piper, the aged adviser of King 
Charles. Lewenhaupt kept up his heroic struggle on the 
right wing, but his forces were greatly reduced by the fire 
of the Russian artillery. The Swedes had lost the battle. 
Their infantry had especially suffered great losses. A great 
number of the ablest officers were killed or made prisoners. 
As an illustration may be quoted the fact that among the 
killed were twenty-two officers of the Wrangel family. 
The Russians made no fierce pursuit, and the remnants of 
the Swedish arm} 7 were given time to recede to the shore 
of the Dniepr where this river is joined by the Vorskla. 
The change of route toward the Ukraine had been made 
contrary to the advice of Count Piper; the march to the 
Dniepr was made contrary to that of Count Lewenhaupt. 
The Swedish troops were in fact shut in between the mighty 
rivers, which they lacked the means to cross, and the 
surrounding mountains, lined with Russian artillery. 
Charles was unwilling to leave his army, but Lewenhaupt 
persuaded him to save his life. Mazeppa had crossed the 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 287 

Dniepr with his troops. Charles followed in the night of 
July 1st with 1,000 of his men. With 500 Swedes Charles 
reached the Turkish town of Bender, where he was at first 
resolved to remain -only until his wound was healed. Lew- 
enhaupt, who now was in command, surrendered to the 
Russians the following morning, with all the rest of the 
army. This course was inevitable; another battle would 
only have caused new and useless sacrifices of human lives. 
A sad fate awaited the Swedes in Russian captivity. 
Only a few saw their homes again, after years of suffering. 
Rehnskiold was among these. The majority, like Lewen- 
haupt and Piper, died in captivity. Considerable informa- 
tion about the experiences of the Swedish prisoners in 
Russia is found in their memoirs and note-books, preserved 
to this day. It appears that the treatment which they 
received varied greatly, according to circumstances. Czar 
Peter wished to keep the Swedish captives in the country 
as long as possible, with the object of favorably influencing 
his barbarous subjects by their superior abilities and culture. 
He had commanded clemency in their treatment; but his 
orders must have been disobeyed, for many Swedish sol- 
diers are known to have perished in the sulphur mines. 
In Tobolsk and other towns of Siberia, Swedish majors and 
captains were in great numbers occupied in the humble 
pursuits of teachers, barbers, tailors, painters and black- 
smiths. Some kept shops and others made articles of the 
Swedish sloyd, in which there was no competition in the 
market. The pastimes were music and theatricals. There 
were, among these thousands of prisoners, 9 generals, 17 
colonels, 27 lieutenant-colonels, 38 majors, 494 captains, 
975 lieutenants, 67 ministers of the Gospel, etc. A good 
many of these were Swedish subjects of German descent, 



288 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

or foreigners in Swedish service. The prisoners tried their 
best to make it as pleasant for themselves as possible. They 
formed a little community of their own in Moscow, with 
Piper and Rehnskiold as their highest officials. Georg 
Nordberg, pastor of the body-guards, was made the president 
of a chapter-house, which held church conferences, issued 
texts for special services, examined and consecrated min- 
isters. Czar Peter tried to attract some of the ablest officers 
to him by promises of liberty and remunerative positions. 
Many of the captives, seeing no prospect of freedom, de- 
cided to remain in the country, entered the Greek church 
and married Russian women. Some who could not endure 
captivity made a revolt at Kasan, killing the armed troops, 
and making an attempt to reach their own beloved country. 
The plot was frustrated and was of sinister consequences, 
for the Swedish captives commenced from that time, 1711, 
to be transported to Siberia in great numbers. This was 
only to move the important work of civilization eastward. 
The captives, instead of succumbing to the severe climate, 
unfolded the great energy of their race, cheerfully accom- 
modating their lives to the new requirements and devoting 
their time to travels for scientific research, or mercantile 
purposes, in Russian service, or on their own responsibility. 
They made accounts and maps of undiscovered and un- 
explored parts of Siberia, gathering results which have 
been of great importance to later explorers, geologists and 
ethnographers. Principal among these scientists are Philip 
John von Strahlenberg, whose great book on Siberia was 
published in Leipsic in 1730, and John Anton Matern and 
Peter Schoenstrcem, Lis collaborators; John Gustavus 
Renat, made a prisoner by the Kalmucks, whom he 
taught the secrets of manufacturing cannon and bombs, 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 289 

and of printing books with movable types; Lorenz Lange, 
who was secretary of several Russian embassies to the 
imperial court of China, about which country he has given 
valuable information; John B. Muller, John Schnitscher 
and Ambjoern Molin. Tobolsk was the centre of the Swed- 
ish colonies in Siberia, where a peculiar sect grew up among 
those of deep religious sentiment. A sectarian school, with 
more than 100 pupils, was established, and the German 
pietist, Aug. Herrman Francke, for some time supported 
the movement. Governor Gagarin, who wanted to make 
himself ruling sovereign of Siberia, arranged a formidable 
conspiracy. It was discovered, the governor was hanged, 
and the Swedish captives who were involved in it were sent 
still further away to Nerschinsk, 

If Charles XII. , up to the date of the terrible battle of 
Pulfcowa, has deserved our sympathy, in spite of his faults 
and mistakes, it is impossible to look upon him in the same 
charitable light for the rest of his career. The great defeat 
and the loss of his army he described in letters to his sister s 
Ulrica Eleonore, and the state council, as small misfor- 
tunes, without consequence, which he was soon to repair. 
Instead of trying his utmost to obtain peace on the best 
possible conditions for his poor country, and instead of 
saving his unhappy army from the miseries of captivity, 
he made plans for new campaigns and demands for a new 
army. Czar Peter expressed more correct views of the 
situation. A few hours after the battle of Pultowa he 
wrote to Admiral Apraxin : ' 'Now rests at last secure our 
city on the Neva." And he was right. The period of 
the political grandeur of Sweden was at an end. 

Great was the renowned heroism of Charles XII. and 
his warriors. Still greater, although less renowned, the 

XX 13 



290 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

heroism with which his poor and neglected country suffered 
the disasters which these glorious deeds brought upon it. 
The regular troops of the army created by Charles XI. 
had not been sufficient. New regiments were, one after 
the other, created by means of increased taxes and repeated 
enlistments, until it appeared as if the whole male popula- 
tion was to be sent out in the endless wars, to be killed or 
imprisoned, and the distressed country doomed to inevitable 
destruction. Plague, hunger and emigration threatened 
to make away with those spared from military service. 
Swedes of the nineteenth century have difficulty in appre- 
hending how the country was able to endure such terrible 
hardships. 

The consequences of the defeat at Pultowa soon became 
manifest. The enemies of Sweden had formed a better 
idea of the resources of the country than had its own ruler, 
and were resolved to profit by it. King August at once 
declared the treaty of Alt-Ranstaedt to be null and void, and 
entered Poland, where he in a short time recovered his 
lost authority. Stanislav fled and sought a refuge on 
Swedish territory. King Charles later gave him his little 
hereditary land of Palatinate-Zweibrucken. King Frederic 
of Denmark declared war upon untenable grounds and had 
an army of 16,000 men invade Scania. Helsingborg was 
captured without difficulty. Great consternation was 
caused by this assault upon the unhappy and apparently 
defenceless country. The state council was brought to 
despair. The situation was saved by Count Magnus Sten- 
boek, the able general. After having served as quarter- 
master-general of the Swedish army in Poland, he was sent 
back to Sweden, being governor-general of Scania at the 
time when this province was invaded. He had not with 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 291 

him the necessary troops to meet the enemy, but left for 
Smaland, where he gathered an army of peasants, chiefly 
consisting of inexperienced but sturdy youths in wooden 
shoes and coats of goatskins. From Vexio, where he had 
met his new mustered troops, Stenbock returned to Scania, 
in February, 1710, obtaining the reinforcements of a few 
additional regiments, which swelled his army to the num- 
ber of 14,000 men. The well-equipped Danish force, which, 
after an expedition into Bleking, returned to Scania, made 
a good deal of fun of the "Stenbuk og hands Gededrenge" 
(the mountain buck and his goatherds). Governor Sten- 
bock understood how to gain the confidence and rouse the 
patriotism of his "goatherds." He was soon sufficiently 
sure of their ability to risk a battle, which was fought at 
Helsingborgj February 28, 1710. The Danes, commanded 
by George Rantzau, were routed, and sought a refuge 
behind the walls of the town. The Danish losses were 
4,000 killed and wounded and 3,000 prisoners, with their 
camp, artillery and baggage. A few days later the Danes 
evacuated Scania, returning to Seeland. The victory of 
Helsingborg was the most glorious of the battles fought 
by Magnus Stenbock. It saved Sweden in the hour of 
direst distress, rekindling the hope which the battle of Pul- 
towa had extinguished. It was the last time in Swedish 
history that the Danes entered Scania as enemies. 

The victory at Helsingborg was only one bright star 
in a night of darkness. In the Baltic provinces the dis- 
asters followed close upon each other. Count Nils Strom- 
berg, the governor-general of Livonia, was forced to sur- 
render the town of Riga, July 1, 1710, after having fought 
the Russians for months with great bravery. The enemies 
which forced the able Stromberg to give up his cause were 



292 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

hunger and plagues. Not less thau 40,000 Russians had 
lost their lives outside the walls of Riga. Within a few 
months Duenamuende, Pernau and Reval also surrendered. 
This made complete the Russian conquest of the Swedish 
empire in the Baltic provinces. The operations against 
Finland s begun earlier, were continued with success. The 
town and fortress of Viborg, which never had been occupied 
by foreign troops, were captured in June, and Kexholm in 
September. The country was unmercifully devastated, 
in spite of solemn promises to the contrary. 

That under such circumstances discontent against the 
absolute ruler was fostered seems only natural. During 
the first few years of the Carolinian campaign the noise 
of the great victories was stronger than the voices of dis- 
content and complaint. When the glorious battles were 
not followed by treaties of peace, the grumbling voices 
grew louder. The king was at first not the object of the 
growing discontent, but the state council, which was con- 
sidered to make greater demands than were necessary. 
The king was supposed to fight for a righteous cause 
against treacherous enemies, but the truth dawned on a 
good many that a government invested with absolute power 
was the cause of the misery. The battle of Pultowa 
brought to a mature state the thoughts of a change in the 
constitution, thoughts which for years had occupied the 
ablest men of the country. The double government was 
to a great extent responsible for the bad state of affairs. 
The king tried to rule with absolute power from his head- 
quarters in Saxony, Poland and the Ukraine, with Piper 
as his adviser. At home the state council held the reins of 
government and sometimes acted in direct opposition to the 
instructions or intentions of the king. Charles XII. was 






HISTORY OF SWEDEN 293 

very jealous of his power, and the state council, foremost 
in which were a few men of the very highest ability, like 
Count Arvid Horn, was on this account sometimes unable 
to carry out its best endeavors. Charles by his methods 
brought confusion and uncertainty into the deliberations 
and acts of the government, injuring the commonwealth 
and the principles of an absolute monarchy as well. The 
king was not able to supervise the details of his administra- 
tion, and unrighteous officers profited thereby, by their 
unlawful collections of taxes, causing open revolts of the 
suffering population in various parts of the country. 

The state council took no pains to hide the truth from 
the king, rather using strong colors in their descriptions 
of the critical condition in order to obtain the much-sought- 
for and needed peace, or at least the gratification of seeing 
the armies of the country used exclusively for the defence 
of its own possessions. King Charles considered the mem- 
bers of the state council as a body of weaklings, cowards 
and fools, who painted the devil on the wall because they 
lacked the courage and endurance to await the final and in- 
fallible triumph of his royal arms in a righteous cause. 
The climax was reached after the arrival of Charles at 
Bender. The state council commenced to negotiate for 
peace on its own responsibility. It also convoked a com- 
mittee of the Estates of the Riksdag to a meeting for delib- 
erations on measures which would better the hopeless con- 
ditions of the state and people. King Charles learned of it 
and sent from Bender a remarkable order, in which he abso- 
lutely forbade such meetings, "especially because the last 
convention of the Estates," he wrote, "had no other con- 
sequence than to let them still plainer discover their impov- 
erished condition." 



#94 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

King Charles lingered in Bender, fascinated by the plans 
made by several Turkish princes of an armed support 
against his enemies, or at least an escort of troops for his 
return through Poland. The king succeeded in his efforts 
to force the sultan of Turkey to an attack on Russia. The 
Turks, 200,000 strong, made an invasion, according to plans 
drawn up by Charles, and were successful in completely 
surrounding a Russian army, commanded by Czar Peter in 
person, at the shores of the river Pruth. The czar saved 
himself by a supreme effort, sacrificing all his gold and the 
jewels of the czarina as bribes to the grand vizier, who com- 
manded the Turkish army. This dignitary let the Russians 
escape, thus spoiling the plans of the whole campaign. To 
Charles it was a great disappointment. His hope to see the 
Russian giant crushed, and the defeat at Pultowa avenged, 
was gone forever. His plan of reaching Poland with 
Turkish troops to join Stenbock and a Swedish army was 
shaken with the loss of confidence in his barbarous allies. 
The perfidious grand vizier was punished, but the agreement 
of peace which he had made with the czar was sanctioned 
by the sultan, in 1711. 

The Swedish state council was quite reluctant to obey 
the repeated orders of the king for a new army, hesitating 
to impose new burdens upon the suffering people. The king 
grew impatient and there was no escape possible. Magnus 
Stenbock, the most popular man in all Sweden, set an 
example of personal sacrifices which was followed by many 
others, and a new army of 9,000 men was at last equipped 
with a navy to carry it across the Baltic to Pomerania. 
Stenbock landed in the island of Rugen, in September, 
1712, and increased his army to 14,000. He abandoned 
the idea to march toward Poland because the king remained 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 295 

at Bender, and entered Mecklenburg after having skilfully- 
avoided meeting a superior force of Russian and Saxon 
troops, which followed him at a distance. Negotiations 
of peace had been commenced before the arrival of Stenbock, 
between the dethroned Stanislav of Poland, who was then 
in Pomerania, and King August. This caused a standstill 
in the operations, an armistice of a fortnight having been 
agreed to, with a prospect of renewal. The Danes made 
an end to it, entering Mecklenburg in December. When the 
armistice was at an end, Stenbock hastened with his troops 
to Gadebusch, where the Danish army was encamped, by 
this rapid move preventing the latter from joining the Rus- 
sian and Saxon forces. Only a detachment of Saxon cav- 
alry had succeeded in reaching the Danish camp. The 
battle of Gadebusch was fought December 9, 1712, and 
was the last of the great victories on land that a Swedish 
army ever won on the Continent. The Danes were crush- 
ingly defeated, and their allies found it safest to return to 
their former fortified positions. The Swedish artillery, 
commanded by Charles Cronstedt, distinguished itself in 
this battle against an enemy of superior strength. But 
Stenbock could not for any length of time keep up the 
struggle against the armies of three countries, not receiving 
any support from Sweden, nor sufficient provisions in Meck- 
lenburg. When the Danes burned the town of Stade, Sten- 
bock in revenge burned Altona, toward the end of the year. 
His army was reduced for lack of provisions, and Stenbock 
saw no other course to take than to shut himself up with 
his troops in the fortress of Tcenning, in the possession of 
the young duke of Holstein-Gottorp. Stenbock persevered 
in his hopes for support from Sweden, or friendly powers, 
in vain. Efforts were made in Sweden to send him troops 



296 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

and provisions, but did not prove successful. "When death 
from starvation was impending, the valiant general con- 
cluded to surrender. May 6, 1713, it was agreed that Sten- 
bock and his army of 11,000 men should become Danish 
prisoners, but that they should be exchanged at the earliest 
opportunity. King Frederic IV. of Denmark dishonestly 
neglected to fulfil this agreement, repeatedly and flatly 
refusing to exchange any of the prisoners. The hero of 
the victories at Helsingborg and Gadebusch at first received 
a tolerably good treatment in Danish captivity, which later 
was changed in a horrible manner. After years of cruel 
suffering, he died in a miserable dungeon, in 1717, one year 
prior to the death of Charles XII. This great descendant 
of Eric Stenbock and Magdalen Sture tried to kill the time 
of his captivity by carving in ivory, some articles of exquis- 
ite design by his hand still being preserved. 

At the surrender of Toenning, Sweden lost her last 
army and her ablest general. Her king dwelt among the 
Turks in circumstances fraught with increasing dangers, 
and her enemies on every side stood ready for attack, the 
country being a prey to discontent and despair. Still her 
measure of misery and contumely was not filled. 

Charles XII. persevered in his strange sojourn at Bender, 
being a guest who caused the sultan continual worry 
through his great political influence. The king was re- 
solved to leave Turkey only in one manner, and that was 
escorted by a Turkish force. He was successful in persuad- 
ing the sultan to declare war on Russia once more, but Czar 
Peter hastened to make so many concessions that peace was 
made before any campaign was begun. King Frederic of 
Prussia offered Charles an alliance on the condition that 
he should at once return to Sweden. Charles seemed at 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 29? 

last inclined to do so, but then a conspiracy was brought 
to his notice, disclosing a plan by which the perfidious 
Turkish princes of his intended escort were to deliver him 
into the hands of King August of Poland. King Charles 
refused to leave Poland, and the conspirators effected an 
order from the sultan to attack Charles with an army of 
10,000 men, and. bring him, dead or alive, to Adrianople, 
The order was executed February 11, 1713, Charles de- 
fending himself with his few hundred Swedes and some 
Poles of his escort against the overwhelming force of Turks 
and Tartars. The house of the king, near Bender, had 
been strongly fortified for the occasion. When the trenches 
were taken most of his men surrendered, but Charles re- 
mained with fifty Swedes in the house, which was built 
of wood, warding off the attack and putting the enemy 
to flight with a heroism vividly recalling the tales of the 
ancient Sagas. The Turks returned toward evening and 
ignited the building. The Swedes valiantly continued their 
struggle, fighting with their swords against the Turks, sur- 
rounded by heavy fire and by the smoke of the burning 
building. The king at last was forced to leave the house 
and tried to make his way to the neighboring chancery 
building, which was of stone and better fit to withstand 
an attack. Charles stumbled and fell, and was at once 
made prisoner, together with his followers. This peculiar 
incident, which has been called the Kalabalik, or Popular 
Tumult, of Bender, aroused universal surprise and dislike. 
Charles was conducted to a Turkish pasha, who treated him 
with respect. He was under supervision first at the town 
of Demotika, later at the palace of Timurtasz, both in the 
vicinity of Adrianople. Charles considered it incompatible 
with his royal dignity to call on the grand vizier. For this 



298 ' HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

reason it was given out that he was ill, and in his miracu 
lous stubbornness he persevered in keeping his bed for a 
whole year! During all this time, Charles followed up his 
policy of governing Sweden from afar with absolute despot- 
ism. He prepared new rules for the chancery, attempting 
to change the form of administration from one of faculties, 
or colleges, to one of departments, or bureaus. He made 
negotiations of peace in the same spirit as of yore, viz., 
without being willing to make any concessions, and planned 
new campaigns. For recreation he played chess and lis- 
tened to music. 

In Sweden the peculiar Turkish adventures of Charles 
XII. were not understood or appreciated, and the country 
seemed forsaken by all, even by the king, who by many 
was thought to be insane. The state council saw no possi- 
bility of maintaining a government without the consent 
and goodwill of the people. Plans for a. new constitution, 
a reduction of the royal power and a peace at any cost 
were in the air. Princess Ulrica Eleonore was called as 
a member of the state council and a Riksdag was convoked, 
to meet toward the end of 1713. The Estates declared that 
they were, in case of necessity, ready to seek peace under 
the auspices of the princess and the state council, and were 
in favor of appointing the princess to the regency. Arvid 
Horn, the leading spirit of the state council, used the utmost 
of his influence in keeping the Riksdag from the revolu- 
tionary acts which would be involved in making Ulrica 
Eleonore regent, but he saw to it that the declaration of the 
Riksdag, of intended peace-making through the princess 
and state council, was communicated to the king. Hans 
Henric von Liewen, one of the state councillors, was 
selected to carry this communication to the king, together 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 299 

with letters from the queen-dowager and the state 
council. Count Liewen gave a full and true account 
to the king, telling him in plain words that if he did 
not return home without delay his kingdom would be 
lost to him. 

King Charles at last decided to return to his country. 
He sent an embassy of seventy-two people to officially 
announce his departure to the sultan at Constantinople, 
made a loan of a considerable sum of money, and left 
Demotika with a large escort. In Wallachia he left the 
Turks behind, and continued on his way through Hungary 
and Germany, followed by two Swedish officers. The 
emperor of Germany, who was desirous of winning over 
the Swedish king for his plans, prepared a hospitable recep- 
tion, but Charles passed Vienna incognito as Captain Peter 
Frisk. He rode on, through night and day, taking care 
of his own horse and never changing his clothes. Charles 
arrived at the gate of Stralsund, in Swedish Pomerania, 
in the night of November 11, 1714, accompanied by one 
officer. In a fortnight he had, on horseback, traversed a 
stretch of 1,300 miles. 

The situation at the arrival of Charles XII. in Stralsund 
was beset with new dangers and complications. Prussia 
had ceased to be friendly and was planning to seize the 
Swedish possessions in Germany. Hanover, united with 
England under the same ruler, had the same ambition. 
The dilapidated fortifications of Stralsund were attacked 
by Saxons and Danes, commanded by their respective 
kings, August and Frederic. For more than a year, 
Charles, with admirable heroism, withstood the siege. 
Once, while the king was dictating a letter to a secretary, 
the latter sprang to his feet in consternation, a bomb hav- 



300 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

ing shattered the roof of the building. "The bomb, your 
majesty, the bomb!" exclaimed the scribe. Charles an- 
swered : ' ' What connection is there between the bomb and 
my letter?" quietly continuing his dictation. The king 
found it at last impossible to keep up the defence of Stral- 
sund, leaving it a stormy December night, and arriving 
safely in the town of Trelleborg, on the southernmost point 
of Sweden, December 15, 1715. 

What a different country that Sweden was which 
Charles XII. left in August, 1699, at the very summit 
of her political grandeur, to the impoverished and suffering 
Sweden in which he had now landed ! And what a differ- 
ent man he had himself become during these sixteen years 
of absence! Sweden had won a new hero king, of greater 
fame than any of his predecessors or successors, but lost 
her prosperity for the time being and her political grandeur 
forever. The people received the king with demonstrations 
of joy and with reviving hope for an honorable peace. The 
state council and the intelligent few received him with 
badly concealed hopelessness and indifference. They knew 
that although the young ambitious king had changed to 
a world-famous hero, prematurely aged in victory and 
defeat, the unyielding stubbornness and the never satiated 
desire for glory had remained unchanged in Charles XII. 
Charles was met by a message from the. dying queen-dow- 
ager, his grandmother, with an ardent prayer for peace. 
Charles answered to hopes and prayers, to silent indiffer- 
ence and despair, with a command of more money and more 
troops! He wanted peace, but as he spoke in the same 
terms as when he was the victorious commander of an 
apparently invincible army, nobody cared to consider his 
demands in earnest. The absolute power reached its last 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 301 

stage of development, a military despotism which had no 
other policy than war, no other administration than the 
one requisite to maintain and provide the requirements of 
war. The state council fell in deepest disgrace, and its 
functions ceased, in 1715. 

During the last years of his reign, Charles XII. took no 
advice of Swedish men. Foreign adventurers and schem- 
ers were in charge of the affairs of state, principal among 
whom was Baron George Henric Goertz. This man was 
a minister of state of the } 7 oung duke of Holstein-Gottorp, 
in whose service he remained, and in whose interests, as a 
successor to Charles XII. on the throne of Sweden, he zeal- 
ously worked, while developing into the all-powerful min 
ister of the Swedish king, Charles granted him authority 
to act in his name in almost every branch of the govern- 
ment, interior as well as foreign. Goertz was a genius, but 
utterly reckless. For his acts the king was responsible, not 
he, Goertz was a foreigner and working for the cause oi 
a foreign master. He tried to obtain loans abroad, made 
compulsory loans within the country, placed a tax on 
articles of luxury, and put in circulation coins of copper 
which were a kind of " promissory notes," worthless in them- 
selves, but each representing a Swedish dollar. At first 
these "coins of need" were issued to the amount of a sensible 
sum, but were soon increased in number at the command 
of Charles XII 8 himsel£ 9 so that they represented higher 
sums than the crown could redeem, and thus lost their 
value. The people refused to take them> while the prices 
of everything in the market rose to an astounding height. 
The government, in order to save itself from this difficulty, 
took possession of all coined money and uncoined silver, and 
gave the " coins of need" in exchange, perpetrating several 



302 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

other scandalous acts of violence against the rights of pri- 
vate property » 

The situation grew almost insupportable. Commerce 
and, industry, injured by the war, ceased entirely because 
nobody was inclined to sell, only to receive in exchange 
worthless coins. Wars and hard years combined in creating 
misery and distress everywhere. The peasants were reck- 
lessly treated, and a disregard for moral obligations grew 
out of the bad examples set by the government. The 
students and scientists had in great numbers been carried 
away by the bloody wars, and the interest in the fields 
of culture was slackened by the power of financial depres- 
sion o The wealthy and well-to-do saw their means daily 
diminish., and, losing their interest in public welfare^ they 
tried to save the remnants of their own property., The 
members of the state council were threatened by investiga- 
tions which Gcertz and his friends were scheming to insti- 
tute against them. In the nobility, the plans for a change 
of the constitution matured, the leaders in this movement 
being Count Per Ribbing and the old Gyllencreutz, who 
had prophesied the outcome of an absolute monarchial 
government. 

Charles XII., in spite of his all-absorbing passion for 
war. did not lack interest for the pursuits of peace. He 
encouraged several men of genius, of whom two were 
eminently worthy of distinction; viz. 5 Mcodemus Tessin, 
Junior, the architect, and Christopher Polhem, the en- 
gineer, 

Mcodemus Tessin was born in Fykceping in 1654, His 
father and namesake belonged to an old Pomeranian family, 
and had come to Sweden during the reign of Queen Chris- 
tine Mcodemus Tessin, Senior, was an able architect, who 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 303 

built the castle of Drottningholm for Queen-dowager Hed- 
vig Eleonore, a moderately gifted* but art-loving woman. 
The latter gathered around herself artists and architects 
at her castle of Drottningholm 5 in Lake Ms3lar 9 among 
whom were Ehrenstrahl 5 a famous artist of German birth, 
who founded the first school of Swedish painters. The 
younger Tessin belonged to this circle and was, in their 
respective times, in the favor of Charles XI. and Charles 
XII., acting as court architect to both. The work which 
won for him an immortal fame is the royal palace of Stock- 
holm, an architectural creation worthy of the admiration 
of all Europe, and, in Sweden, standing unsurpassed to this 
day. It was planned and commenced by Tessin, but com- 
pleted according to his plans a hundred years after his 
death. Charles XI. ordered a reconstruction of the old 
castle, which enterprise Tessin undertook. Shortly after 
the death of Charles XL, both the old and the recon= 
structed parts of the palace were burned, and the body 
of the king with difficulty saved from the conflagration. 
Charles XI I. ordered Tessin to build an entirely new 
palace. The work was commenced in 1698, but was grad- 
ually abandoned during the war times, to cease shortly 
before the battle of Pultowa. Charles was highly inter- 
ested in it and wrote from Turkey to Tessin about his 
views. Tessin intended to decorate the exterior according 
to the taste of his day, but Charles raised opposition, find- 
ing the severe beauty of the stern yet graceful outlines per- 
fect in themselves. The work on the new palace was 
recommenced after the death of Charles XII. King Adol- 
phus Frederic was the first who took up his residence within 
its walls. Tessin rose high on the social ladder. From 
Turkey, the king made him a count and chancellor of the 



304 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

University of Lund; after his return to Sweden he ap- 
pointed him marshal-colonel. Tessin stood in strong 
opposition to Baron Gcertz, and after the death of King 
Charles joined the leaders of the revolutionary nobles. He 
was of universal fame. 

Christopher Polhem was the first of great Swedish en- 
gineers and inventors. He was born at the ancient town 
of Visby, in the island of Gothland, in 1661, and was the 
son of a merchant, who died when Christopher was a child. 
When only twelve years of age he had to make his own 
living. As secretary to a widow of wealth, he early devel- 
oped his genius as a mechanician, building his own shop 
of carpentry, sloyd, etc., making watches and devising 
smaller inventions. His want of a classical education was 
detrimental to him, and he commenced, when twenty-four 
years of age, to study Latin with various ministers in the 
country, in exchange for works of his genius and handi- 
craft. At last he was able to enter the University of Up- 
sala by means of recommendations from his last teacher. 
Soon after his arrival he created considerable attention and 
admiration by a proof of his ingenuity. Behind the high 
altar in the Upsala Cathedral there was a clock of the finest 
workmanship, devised in mediaeval times by a monk of the 
monastery of Vadstena. It was out of order, and not for 
a hundred years had anybody attempted to set it right. 
Polhem undertook to reconstruct the whole work, connect- 
ing with the main mechanism all the hands which pointed 
out the hours of the day, the eclipses of the moon and the 
motions of the * 'ruling" planets, according to the system 
of the astrologers. Polhem succeeded in his task, and was 
allowed to test his invention of automatic haulers of ore in 
the mines. The college of mining, before which the inven- 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 305 

tion was successfully demonstrated , accepted it, and Charles 
XIo appointed Polhem a mining engineer. In 1894, Polheni 
made an extensive journey through England and the Con- 
tinentc In Paris he learned that several mathematicians 
were in vain endeavoring to construct a clock which would 
simultaneously show the time of the day in various coun- 
tries and strike the hours at the same time, Polhem an- 
nounced through the Swedish ambassador in Paris that h© 
was willing to solve the problem. He constructed a model 
which gave universal satisfaction, Louis XIV, had a clock 
made after this model and gave it as a gift of honor to the 
Turkish sultan. Upon his return he proposed the found- 
ing of a laboratorium mechanicum^ which in several re- 
spects served as a pattern for the later technological insti- 
tutes of Stockholm and Gothenburg, The youthful Charles 
XII. embraced the idea with interest s but the promising 
institution came to a standstill during the wars. Among 
Polhem ? s more remarkable inventions was one for the lead- 
ing of water-power, to be used at considerable distances, 
Charles XII . said that a man like Polhem was not to be had 
for several centuries, and that for this reason he ought to be 
made useful as long as he lived, A task of gigantic pro- 
portions was intrusted to him — the construction of a dock 
for the navy yards at Carlskrona, The great engineer filled 
it in an admirable way, and was appointed councillor of 
commerce and ennobled under the name of Polhem, his 
original name having been Polhammar, which to modern 
ears sounds just as fine and a good deal more suggest ive* 
Another gigantic task worthy of the genius of Polhem 
was the construction of a navigable route from the North 
Sea across the great inland seas of Sweden to the Baltic, but 
he was not allowed to finish it. Charles XII. intrusted the 



806 HISTOEY OF SWEDEN 

work to Polhem, who was to have it ready in five years. 
In 1718, Polhem commenced by forming an immense sluice, 
by means of explosions in the rock at Trollhetta. The great 
waterfalls of said place were to be avoided and the work 
of completing the sluice was begun, when it was all de- 
stroyed by unknown enemies, who dropped beams and 
planks in the river above, which carried away the dam. 
The death of King Charles and the impoverished condition 
of the country made it impossible to continue the work on 
the great canal system, which had to wait for more than 
a century for its ultimate completion. With the death of 
Charles XII. the era of ambitious enterprises came to an 
end; but Polhem was employed in various works of me- 
chanic improvements in the interest of agriculture, industry 
and manufactures. Czar Peter of Russia, King George 
I. of England, and several other monarchs made brilliant 
offers in order to win Polhem for their countries. He ex- 
ecuted several works and inventions abroad, but loved his 
own country too much to leave it. Polhem exerted a great 
influence in the interest of his science, both by instruction 
and by the publication of technical works. Active to the 
last, he died in 1751. Polhem was a man of a harmonious 
endowment, amiable and dignified, and preserved his plain 
mode of living throughout his brilliant career. 

Gcertz led with superior skill the negotiations for peace, 
while the impoverished country suffered untold miseries as 
a consequence of his unscrupulous financial schemes. He 
tried to benefit by the sudden but lasting enmity between 
Czar Peter and George I., desiring to gain the support of 
either against the other. The deliberations were held in the 
archipelago of Aland, with Gcertz as the representative 
of the Swedish government. Czar Peter wanted to keep 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 307 

Ingermanland, Esthonia and Livonia, but was ready to 
cede Finland, which country he occupied, and to assist 
King Charles with troops in an attack on Denmark. Nor- 
way was to be the compensation for the lost Baltic provinces, 
and the attack on Denmark was to be made from Germany. 
Charles XIL had no confidence in the czar as an ally and 
had commenced the conquest of Norway directly and with- 
out his aid. No decision was reached in the negotiations 
with England. 

In February, 1716, Charles XIL, from Bohuslsen and 
Vermland, made an invasion into Norway 3 penetrating over 
the Glom River to Christiania. He captured the capital, 
where he held his headquarters for several weeks, but was 
not able to take the fortress of Akershus, which, with its 
artillery, commanded the city. The Swedish army 5 10,000 
strong, suffered a great deal from want of provisions and 
through a guerilla war, skilfully conducted by the Norwe- 
gians. Charles was in danger of being surrounded by the 
enemy, and with difficulty retreated to Sweden, over the 
Strait of Svinesund* The dangers were increased by the 
Norwegian naval hero, Peter Tordenskiold, who ? with some 
Danish ships under his command, had destroyed a flotilla 
of Swedish transport vessels. An invasion into Scania by 
Denmark and her allies was planned for the summer, but 
did not materialize. King Charles took up his headquarters 
at Lund. 

The war offered no aspect of interest during the year 
1717, except some unsuccessful attempts made by Torden- 
skiold to capture the tow us of Stroemstad and Gothen- 
burg. Charles prepared another attack on Norway, and, 
by draining the last resources of his country, managed 
to equip an army of 60,000 men. In August, 1718, a 



308 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

smaller army, under the command of Charles Gustavus 
Armfeltj was sent through Jemtland over the mountains 
into the diocese of Drontheim, King Charles,, with an 
army of 30,000 men, invaded Norway from Bohuslsen, Dal 
and Vermland, and took in possession the country east of 
the Grlom River. Within a few days the king laid siege 
to the fortress of Fredericsten, close by the town of Fred° 
ricshall. November 27th the fort of Gyldenlceve was cap- 
tured, and the Swedes moved their trenches ever closer 
to the fortress, which seemed doomed to surrender. In the 
evening of November 30th the king was seen in one of 
the trenches watching the work of his soldiers, and leaning 
against the rampartc He remained there a long time, not 
heeding the appeals of his officers, who grew uneasy on 
account of the apparent danger to his person. Suddenly 
his head sank down on his breast. A bullet from the for- 
tress had reached him, penetrating his temples and causing 
instant death. He met death in the manner he most de- 
sired it s although not while engaged in battle, 

Charles XII. was of an enigmatic character, which at- 
tracts, through its strength and superiority over his con- 
temporaries, but which is repulsive through its tenacity, 
unyielding sternness and inaccessibility to reason or per- 
suasion, His moral greatness has won admiration. It had 
its limitations, but was superior to the standards of his time. 
His ideals were pure and lofty, but, through lack of contact 
with the realities and facts of life, only assumed a tragic 
grandeur,, without proving beneficent to mankind. His 
faults were such that his education and experience as an 
absolute monarch aggravated them. Charles XII. was the 
most remarkable man of his age and one of the greatest 
soldiers that ever lived. He was also a great general. 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 309 

although the proper balance between the soidier and the 
field marshal, perhaps, was to some extent lacking^ The 
influence of his personality and example had a miraculous 
effect upon his soldiers. He suffered his one great defeat 
in open battle when wounded, suffering, and not able to 
exert his usual influence to its full extent. 

Charles XIL has been idolized by his countrymen of all 
ages, who in him have recognized an impersonation of 
all their chief national virtues, with a few of their national 
faults, enlarged into the image of a patriotic hero of almost 
supernatural grandeur, The Swedish people were forced 
to accept absolute power as a salvation from the impending 
thraldom of oligarchic In Charles XIL it saw to what 
a climax of abuse this power could attain, even in hands 
which were deemed righteous and free from stains. With 
Charles XII. the political grandeur and the absolute mon- 
archy of Sweden came to an end, although attempts to 
restore both were to be made, A new phase of her develop- 
ment, with new improvements and new evils, commenced 
with the reign of Ulrica Eleonore. 



CHAPTER XIV 
Period of Liberty — The Aristocratic Republic 

ULRICA ELEONORE succeeded her brother Charles 
XII, as the sovereign of Sweden* She was pro- 
claimed queen by birthright, and called the Riks- 
dag, willing to cede the absolute power. When the Riks- 
dag convened a disagreeable surprise met her. The Estates 
refused to acknowledge her right to the crown, stating that 
both she and her older sister had deprived themselves of 
their rights of succession by marrying without the consent 
of the Estates of the Riksdag. Princess Hedvig Sophie was 
dead, but her son, the young Duke Charles Frederic of 
Holstein was in Sweden, ready to claim the throne Ulrica 
Eleonore was compelled to yield gracefully. She sent a 
note to the Riksdag disclaiming her hereditary right, but 
declaring herself willing to accept the crown, with restric- 
tion of the absolute power She was at once elected queen 
by the Riksdag of 1719, which then proceeded to pass a new 
constitution. Such a constitution had been formulated in 
advance by a new party, chiefly consisting of nobles, who 
aimed at introducing a royal government, restricted in its 
power by the state council and the Riksdag. They were 
successful in their efforts, but unfortunately lost their ablest 
leaders at the start, Per Ribbing dying soon after the first 

Riksdag, and Arvid Horn retiring from the government 
(310) 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 311 

and council on account of a conflict with the queen. Thus 
the new government did not open up under favorable aus- 
pices. Baron von Gcertz was captured and put to death 
for high treason without being granted the privilege of an 
appropriate legal defence. The queen overstepped her limit 
of power in being the active force in this illegal execution, 
anxious to rid herself of Gcertz because he was the ablest 
man among the supporters of Duke Charles Frederic of 
Holsteim The duke gave up his chances and left for 
Russia, where he married a daughter of Czar Peter. The 
arrangements made to establish order in financial matters 
were not satisfactory. The management of the war with 
Denmark was miserable. The army was recalled from 
Norway and little done to protect the coast from attacks 
by the Danish fleet under Admiral Tordenskiold. This 
valiant naval hero, of Norwegian birth 5 who, during the 
reign of Charles XII., had made unsuccessful attacks on 
Stroemstad and Gothenburg, through cunning captured the 
strong fortress of Carlsten, but was unable to take New 
Elfsborg. Danckwardt, the commander who surrendered 
Carlsten, was executed by the Swedish government. The 
Swedish army of 6,000 men, which had entered the district 
of Dronthiem by the command of Charles XII., perished 
from hunger and cold when returning through the moun- 
tains of Jemtland, Only a few hundred survived to tell 
the terrible tale. The Russians sent a fleet to the Swedish 
shores with 40,000 men, and burned, in two expeditions, 
twelve Swedish towns in the middle and northern parts 
of the country. They avoided open battle, and when land- 
ing in great numbers were effectively repulsed. 

Under such conditions Sweden was anxious for peace. 
In compensation for various sums of money, Bremen and 



S12 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

Yerden were ceded to Hanover in 1719, Pomerania, south 
of the river Peene, with Stettin^ Usedom and Wollin to 
Prussia, in 1720, and Xngermanland, Esthonia, Livonia, 
with Viborg and Kexholm, and surrounding Finnish ter- 
ritory 9 to Russia, in 1721c Denmark had to give up all 
territory captured from Sweden s but received a sum of 
money in exchange for Carlsten s in 1720. Thus the Baltic 
empire of Sweden was swept away. It had been of impor- 
tance during the time of the German war and for the 
shielding of new conquests in the Scandinavian Peninsula 
itself . Now its loss was a gain for Sweden, as it allowed 
her to concentrate her attention upon the interior develop- 
ment of the country. 

The tendency of Ulrica Eleonore to exert more power 
than was within her authority had created dissatisfaction, 
and when she commenced an agitation to have her consort, 
Prince Frederic of Hesse, share the throne with her, the 
crown was granted him only upon her own resignation from 
the government, 

Frederic I was crowned in 1720 and Ulrica Eleonore 
retired from the government,, Frederic left the Reformed 
and entered the Lutheran Churcho The crown was to be 
inherited by his male issues only, in the union with Ulrica 
Eleonore. He showed a tendency for mixing in the affairs 
of state to further his own interests, but soon gave in to 
his easy-tempered, pleasure-loving nature, occupying him° 
self exclusively with his hunts and his mistresses. 

The real ruler of Sweden, during the first two decades 
of Frederic's reign, was Arvid Horn, one of the greatest 
of Swedish statesmen. His was not the work of building 
up the government of a strong and influential nation, like 
that of Oxenstierna or Gyllenstierna, nor were his their 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 313 

grand, far-reaching views. But his mission was to raise 
from the dust his bleedings downtrodden country, and to 
reinstall it in the honor and respect ? not only of itself but 
of the world. Count Arvid Bernhard Horn was an oppor- 
tunist, but one of the noblest kind, who by means of peace 
found the only way in which to protect and further the 
financial and cultural development of Sweden, He was 
an able soldier and a skilled diplomatist . The son of an 
illustrious but poor family s of the Finnish nobility 5 he en- 
tered the military service after a university course at Abo, 
He served in foreign armies, but was with Charles XII, 
in Stockholm as the best companion of his youth As the 
commander of the royal body-guard he took an honorable 
part in the early victories of Charles XII. , later being 
chosen to fulfil the delicate task of making the Polish 
nobles elect Stanislav king, in which he was eminently suc- 
cessful. After a short captivity he was released and re- 
turned to Sweden, where he became a member of the state 
council and president of the state chancery. In this posi- 
tion he repeatedly sent letters to Charles XIL, in which 
he described the distress of the country, in eloquent words 
pleading its need of peace. Upon his return Charles XIL 
removed him from office with the other councillors, although 
he was the one who had saved the tottering throne for the 
king, Of this Ulrica Eleonore was aware and was glad to 
accept his resignation; when reinstated in his position he 
found that he could not preserve it with dignity in the face 
of the irregularities committed by the queen. Count Horn 
was responsible for the exclusion of Ulrica Eleonore from the 
government at King Frederic's ascendency, but the latter 
was forced to accept Horn in his former position as the con- 
trolling power of the government. With due reason, the 

XX 14 



314 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

peaceful and honorable decades of Frederic's reign have 
been named the "Period of Arvid Horn. 35 

The new form of government introduced by Ribbing, 
Horn and others was nothing else than that of an aristo- 
cratic republic. The rights of the monarch, reduced in 
1719, were still further reduced in 1720. He had two votes 
in the state council and a deciding vote in deadlock, but 
besides the authority to appoint councillors from the candi- 
dates nominated by the Riksdag, and to appoint all higher 
officials, no other rights. The government was in the 
hands of the state council, consisting of sixteen members. 
The Riksdag decided all questions of taxes and legislation, 
and settled issues of peace and war. Each of the four 
Estates was represented in the committees, except in the 
"secret committee, ?2 for international affairs, to which no 
yeoman could be chosen. Each Estate had its speaker 
The president of the chancery was the minister of foreign 
affairs and consulted the secret committee on important 
questions, being the only head of a department who was 
allowed as a member of the state council. The nobility 
held the balance of power, much to the opposition of the 
lower Estates, who tried, by repeated agitation 9 to invest 
the king with the authority held by him before the days 
of absolute power. The nobility had done away with its 
three classes, and 5 with these abandoned^ it was the ma- 
jority, viz., the lower nobility, who were the governing class 
The aristocracy tried its best to regain the privileges en- 
joyed during the reign of Queen Christine and Charles X., 
but Horn forced it to be satisfied with those granted by 
Gustavus AdolphuSo The power of the higher nobility was 
forever crushed by the loss of their immense possessions. 
The friction between the nobility and the lower Estates of 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 315 

the Riksdag was constant, Horn siding with the former, but 
keeping them all in check, 

Arvid Horn led with superior skill and gentleness the 
management of foreign affairs. All influences from the 
powers and from the restless nobles to involve Sweden in 
a conflict of war were unsuccessful, A treaty was never en- 
tered into with any one power without another on© formed 
with a power of the opposite continental party to counter- 
balance it. Thus England, France and Russia were unable 
to make Sweden an obedient ally, Horn upholding her 
independence, maintaining peace and inspiring respect. 
Utterly refusing to accept the bribes which were freely 
offered and considered the indispensable means of obtaining 
diplomatic influence in that day, Horn himself distributed 
bribes to gain his patriotic purposes, Horn's great mistake 
was to refer the decision of foreign affairs in which he was 
opposed by members of the state council to the Riksdag and 
its secret committee. The latter commenced to act inde- 
pendently in important foreign matters. By signing an 
agreement with France, through which Sweden lost its 
former privilege of an independent policy, the committee 
ultimately caused his downfall, in 1738. Arvid Horn then 
retired, at the age of seventy -two, and died a few years 
later. 

During Horn's peaceful administration the financial con- 
ditions improved, the state debt was reduced and the peace- 
ful trades and industries were furthered. The great deed 
accomplished was the completion of a new state law which 
was published in 1734 and is in force to this very day, 
Arvid Horn was a perfect type of the great Carolin era, of 
pure and severe morals and modest requirements. In a day 
of increasing scepticism and levity, he ostentatiously pre- 



316 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

served the rigid religious practices of his youtho He 
showed unreserved indignation at the unworthy and im- 
moral conduct of the king, for which reason strained rela- 
tions existed between them. Count Horn was of impressive 
form and carriage, controlling the quick temper of the war- 
rior beneath the smooth and dignified bearing of the states- 
man. 

The decades which followed upon the fall of Arvid 
Horn were stormy ones and full of miseries. The friends 
of peace were called Caps and the warlike party Hats. 
The latter, now in power, commenced a war against Russia, 
which turned out badly, the Swedes being defeated at Vil- 
manstrand, in 1741, and at Helsingfors, in 1742, The gov- 
ernment and secret committee felt ashamed of their work 
and had the poor generals, Charles Emil Lewenhaupt and 
Buddenbrock, executed for their lack of martial skill and 
good fortune. Peace was made with Russia in 1743, the 
towns of Fredericshamn, Vilmanstrand and Nyslott, in 
Finland, being ceded by Sweden,, and the river Kymene 
made the boundary line. 

Next the Hats had to face a rebellion. In order to 
please Elizabeth of Russia, Czar Peter's daughter, they 
had selected Charles Peter Ulric, her nephew and the son 
of the duke of Holstein, as heir-apparent to the Swedish 
throne, to which he was the nearest in right, Ulrica Eleo- 
nore dying without issue, in 1741. But when chosen as 
Elizabeth's successor in Russia, the Hats selected Adolphus 
Frederic, prince bishop of Lubeck, who on his mother's side 
was a descendant of G-ustavus AdolphuSo This caused 
popular discontent, the people, forgetful of past enmities, 
desiring to make Crown Prince Frederic of Denmark heir- 
apparent. The peasants at the Riksdag of 1742 proclaimed 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 317 

loudly their desire of a personal union with Denmark-Nor- 
way, which would establish Scandinavia as one solid power 
against Russia. The peasants of Helsingland and Dale- 
carlia revolted. They gathered, and marching down to 
Stockholm, placed the government in a dangerous posi- 
tion by demanding the election of Grown Prince Fred- 
eric of Denmark and the execution of the two imprisoned 
generals. In that very moment peace was obtained with 
Russia, and the government persuaded the leaders of the 
rebellion, who had obtained admission to the Riksdag, that 
Adolphus Frederic must be chosen, since it was a part of 
the treaty of peace. Later the rebels, 3,500 in number, 
were forced to surrender. Their principal leader was 
executed. 

The Hats were at first led by Count Gyllenborg, who 
was succeeded by the brilliant Count Charles Gustavus 
Tessin, a son of the great architect, Mcodemus Tessin the 
Younger, Although not a statesman of any higher ability, 
Charles Gustavus Tessin was able to shake the oppressive 
influence of Russia. He was assisted by Prince Adolphus 
Frederic, who said he would rather resign than be a Rus- 
sian vassal. A war seemed imminent, but was averted, 
Finland in the meantime being effectively fortified. The 
unconquerable fortress of Sveaborg was built near Helsing- 
£ors, and was the creation of Augustinus Ehrensverd. The 
Hats were eager in their attempts to encourage industry 
and manufacture, but did so at the expense of agriculture, 
and placed immense taxes on imported goods. A pioneer 
of industry was John Alstrcemer, who, in his town of 
Alingsos, built factories of various kinds. King Frederic 
died in 1751. 

Adolphus Frederic was a good-natured and gentle man. 



318 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

He was not averse to an increased royal authority, but was 
not energetic enough to exert a controlling influence or to 
push his claims. His consort was the ambitious and bril- 
liantly gifted Louise Ulrica, the sister of Frederic the Great 
of Prussia. She tried to inspire the king to action. Con- 
tinually occupied by ambitious schemes, she spoiled them 
herself, through lack of caution and stability. As crown 
princess, she stood close to Count Tessin, whom she hoped 
to win over for her plans. They devised the institution of 
the knightly orders of the Seraphim, the Sword and the 
North Star, the credit of their introduction being given to 
King Frederic I. Adolphus Frederic was forced to sub- 
scribe to the same minimum of royal privileges as those 
enjoyed by Frederic I. At court a party was formed 
which supported the king, who soon commenced to oppose 
the state council. In 1755 this went so far that he refused 
to sign a document from the council. The case was 
brought before the Riksdag, where, in spite of strong opposi- 
tion from the peasants, a resolution was passed indorsing 
the action of the state council. Count Tessin, in friction 
with the court, resigned from all his positions. The Riks- 
dag tried to reinstall him as governor of the royal princes, 
but gave in upon the request of Tessin. The Riksdag went 
to the extreme of having a stamp made of the king's signa- 
ture, to use in cases where he refused to sign, and also took 
upon itself to engage and dismiss teachers for the royal 
princes. At court indignation rose high, and a conspiracy 
was formed to take possession of the capital, with the state 
council and the speakers of the four Estates, in order to 
bring about a revolution with increased power for the king. 
The conspiracy was discovered, and Count Eric Brahe, 
Count Jacob Horn and six others of its leaders executed. 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 319 

A new humiliation to the court was Sweden's alliance 
with Austria, Russia and France against Frederic the Great 
of Prussia. The plans laid out by the Swedes were as 
elaborate as those for the Russian war. But on account 
of poor equipment and repeated change of commanders 
nothing effective was done. When peace was made at 
Hamburg, in 1762, Sweden neither lost nor gained any- 
thing. The Swedes had fought no battles, and Frederic 
the Great said he would call the Swedish invasion of Pom- 
erania a private fight at the frontier. 

The great expense of the profitless war gave the Caps 
an occasion to gain in influence, and at the Riksdag of 
1765 they overthrew the power of the Hats, in their turn 
summarily dismissing the councillors of their opponents. 
They introduced perfect liberty of the press in 1766, but 
went too far in their policy of economy, dangerously injur- 
ing the new industries by the withdrawal of loans and sub- 
sidies. The expensive factories came to a standstill and 
skilled workingmen emigrated. Popular opinion turned 
against these repeated changes and the endless strife of 
the parties, and felt inclined to criticise a Riksdag which 
had attained such power without giving a prosperous and 
secure administration in return. Foreign powers, encour- 
aged by the court, tried to gain adherents of their various 
policies by bribes to councillors and members of the Riks- 
dag, thus demoralizing state politics. 

The king received a valuable supporter in the crown 
prince Gustavus, who in 1767 became of age. He prevailed 
upon the king to resign when the state council refused to call 
an extraordinary Riksdag for the granting of added royal 
authority. The king did so, and the country was without 
a monarch for six days (December 15-21, 1768). The crown 



320 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

prince notified the presidents of the different administrative 
offices in Stockholm that his father had ceased to reign. 
The state council persisted ; but had to give in, when the 
colonels of the regiments reported that they could no longer 
answer for their troops, since also the paymaster's office was 
closed. The Riksdag convened in Norrkceping in 1769. 
The Caps suffered defeat in spite of strenuous efforts made 
for their preservation by the secret agents of the powers, 
anxious to see the anarchic condition of the government 
continue. But the court party failed in the exertions to 
have the royal privileges augmented. The intrigues of the 
foreign powers continued, and the crown prince left for 
France to insure her support in case of war. While the 
Hats were once more in power, Adolphus Frederic died 
suddenly in February, 1771. 

Gustavus was to put an end to the party strife of the 
"Period of Liberty,' ' as it has been called. His own reign 
belongs properly to it, for he reaped the benefit of the seed 
it had been sowing. The Period of Liberty, with all its 
faults, forms an important chain in the cultural and polit- 
ical development of Sweden. Its form of government 
made necessary a varied and active part in public affairs, 
educating all classes of officials to a high degree of effi- 
ciency and the people at large to self-government. The 
Riksdag, through parliamentary activity and importance, 
developed an authority which, although too composite 
to govern itself, was enabled to act as a shield of steel 
against all abuse of the executive power. The national life 
never gathered a richer harvest of men of genius who 
worked for the progress of their country and for that of 
the world. The heroism of the Swedish people during the 
preceding period of suffering and distress bore fruit in 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 321 

men. like Emanuel Swedenborg, the inventor, naturalist, 
philosopher and founder of a new religion; Charles 
LinnaeiiSj the founder of modern botany; Andrew Oelsius, 
Junior, the inventor of the centigrade thermometer; John 
Ahlstrcemer, the pioneer of industry; John Ihre, the able 
philologist, and Olof von Dalin, the poet, humorist, and, 
with Sven Lagerbring ? the first modern historian of Swe- 
den. The Period of "Liberty," viz., of an Aristocratic 
Republic^ was the golden era of Swedish science, the latter 
for the first time becoming of universal fame and of uni- 
versal importance. The scientists of this period belong to 
the fathers of modern research, basing their conclusions upon 
personal observation, in strong contrast to their fathers and 
precursors of the chauvinistic barocco period. 

Emanuel Swedenborg, the most remarkable man whom 
Sweden has ever brought forth, was born in Stockholm, 
Jane 29, 1688= His father was Jesper Svedberg, bishop 
of Skara, in West Gothland, and his mother Sara Belim, 
The tendency toward mysticism, an inheritance from his 
father, was noticed in him at an early age. He has told 
of himself that between the age of four and ten his thoughts 
were exclusively occupied with religious subjects. While 
in prayer, he sometimes entered a somnambulic condition, 
revealing things which surprised his parents, who said that 
angels spoke through him. As a child, he had the idea of 
God as one, without any conception of a Trinity, Later 
lie received instruction in the systematic theology of his 
day. His father gave him a thorough training in the 
Oriental and classical languages. The early mysticism of 
the boy was supplanted by a thirst for knowledge of the 
phenomena of life and nature, coupled to a burning desire 
to illustrate his reading by practical experiments. Having 



'622 HISTORY OP SWEDEN 

entered the University of Upsala, he at first devoted himself 
to the study of the classical languages and literature, later 
to that of mathematics and natural science. When the 
university was visited by the plague in 1710, and almost all 
courses of instruction were interrupted, Swedenborg made 
a journey for scientific purposes to England, Holland, 
France and Germany . He returned in 1714, enriched with 
valuable results. In 1716-18 he published the first scien- 
tific journal of Sweden, "Daedalus Hyper boreus ? " treating 
subjects of mathematics and physical science. In 1716 he 
came in close personal contact with Charles XIL at the 
university town of Lund, The king, being deeply im- 
pressed by his great learning and practical ability, appointed 
him assistant assessor of the college of mining, Sweden- 
borg had, by the scholar Eric Benzelius 5 been made ac- 
quainted with the idea of the old Bishop Brask, of the time 
of Gustavus loj to 4€ cut up the land" between the North Sea 
and the Baltic to make a navigable route through Sweden. 
Swedenborg gave close attention to this scheme, and com- 
municated his plans to Charles XIL, who became very much 
interested in them. Christopher Polhem was selected to 
build the great canals and Swedenborg was made his assist- 
ant We know from the sketch of Polhem s s life why the 
great work failed of accomplishment,, Swedenborg gave 
a proof of his superior genius as a practical engineer during 
the siege of FredericshalL Tordenskiold made the sea un- 
safe and had hedged in the Swedish fleet at Iddefiordo The 
Swedish boats and galleys were then carried overland to 
the town of Strcemstad, travelling the main road for fifteen 
miles on rolling machines devised by Swedenborg After 
the death of Charles XII., whom he highly respected, Swe- 
denborg travelled to Saxony and Hungary to study the 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 328 

mining industry of these countries. Returning in 1722, 
he entered for the first time upon his work of the college of 
mining; becoming assessor a few years later. In 1719 he 
was ennobled with his brothers and sisters, when the change 
of name from Svedberg to Swedenborg was made In 1724 
he declined to accept the chair of mathematics at the Uni- 
versity of Upsala, dividing his time between his official 
work and his studies, until 1747, when he resigned from 
his position with a pension of the same amount as his sal- 
ary. His religious works were commenced in 1745, and 
after that time he made repeated journeys to London or 
Amsterdam to have these printed, as they could not be pub- 
lished in Sweden on account of the strict and highly ortho- 
dox censure of that periodc 

In 1744 the event occurred which Swedenborg in various 
places of his works has described as the opening of his 
spiritual sight, or the manifestations of the Lord to him 
in person. He had not, by geometrical, physical and meta- 
physical principles, succeeded in grasping the infinite and 
the spiritual, or their relation to the nature of man, but he 
had touched on facts and methods which seemed to conduct 
him in the right direction. He thought that God had led 
him into the natural sciences in order to prepare him for his 
later spiritual development The visions of his boyhood 
returned, now conceived by a nature enriched by the ex- 
periences of a life spent in ardent and scientific research. 
The great seer remained a man whom everybody loved and 
respected. People who did not believe in his visions feared 
to ridicule them in the presence of this august savant. His 
manner of life was simple, his diet chiefly consisting of 
bread, milk and large quantities of coffee. He made little 
distinction between night and day, and sometimes lay for 



324 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

days in a trance . His servants were often disturbed at 
night by hearing him engaged in what he called conflicts 
with evil spirits. His intercourse with spirits was often 
perfectly calm, in broad daylight, and with all his faculties 
awake* He held that every man and woman has the same 
power of spiritual intercourse, although not developed in 
the same degree as it was found in him. 

The work which established the scientific reputation of 
Swedenborg was published, in 1734, in three massive folios, 
at the expense of Duke Ludvig Rudolph of Brunswick. 
The second and third volumes describe the best methods 
employed in Europe and America in the manufacture of 
iron, copper and brass. The first volume contains a philo- 
sophical explanation of the elementary world which has 
aroused admiration as a beautiful, daring and consistent 
creation of human genius, worthy of being placed side by 
side with the works of Fewton, and replete with remark- 
able ideas and anticipations of later discoveries. Sweden- 
borg indicated the existence of the seventh planet forty 
years before Uranus was discovered by HerscheL He was 
the first to form an idea of the development of nebulae from 
chaotic masses to concrete heavenly bodies, a hypothesis 
later perfected by Herschel, and the first to offer the theory, 
later developed by Buffon, Kant and La Place, of the solar 
origin of the planets and their satellites. As in astronomy, 
so also in physics and geology he preconceived great discov- 
eries. His experiments and theories in physics have been 
confirmed by the discoveries of the polarity of light and the 
galvanometer and its magnetic properties, Swedenborg 
discovered before anybody else the great importance of 
magnetism and the fact that magnetism and electricity are 
manifestations of the same power. He made observations 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 325 

concerning air and water which have been confirmed as to 
their correctness by Priestley, Cavendish and Lavoisier, 
who long were supposed to have been the first discoverers. 
In geology j he was the first to demonstrate that the Scan- 
dinavian peninsula, except the southern part of Scania, was 
a rising continent, proving the earlier level of the sea to 
have been much higher and the inland lakes to have stood 
in connection with the sea. Through his remarks on bowl- 
ders, he gave rise to the later theories of Berzelius and 
Ssefstrom of a bowlder period* Upon these researches fol- 
lowed great and remarkable works of anatomy 5 which, by 
later anatomists of the first rank, have been declared to be 
classics in the literature of physiology . His immense work, 
' e Arcana Ooelestia, ' ? and other theosophical writings which 
he has placed as a foundation for the Eew Church, and on 
which his present fame rests, were not so celebrated in his 
days as his scientific works. Like the latter, they were ail 
written in Latin . 

The new religion, founded by Swedenborg. more spirit- 
ual than the old, has proved equally attractive to the in= 
dividual and idealistic thinkers of all sects, Protestants and 
Catholics, Unitarians and Theosophists, Swedenborg made 
no attempt to establish a sect, and the New Church as an 
organization is the result of a movement which was started 
after his death. 

In his personal appearance Swedenborg was a middle- 
sized man of strong constitution. His head was of a fine 
shape, the color of his face somewhat dark and its expres- 
sion pensive, but his blue eyes were large and radiant His 
disposition was amiable. He was a man of the world, fond 
of music and society, especially of that of cultured women, 
and was often seen at court. He had a tendency to stutter 



826 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

when speaking fast, for which reason he used a slow dic- 
tion, characterized by choice and mature expressions. In 
his youth, he frequented the house of Christopher Pol hem 
and fell in love with his daughter Emerentia. Both Pol- 
hem and Charles XII. favored the idea of seeing them 
united, the young girl of fourteen giving her consent. Bat 
young Emerentia was secretly in love with somebody else, 
and her health and disposition suffered under the strain, 
When Swedenborg discovered the truth, he gave his be- 
trothed freedom from her allegiance. He ceased to visit the 
house of Polhem and never entered any other relation of 
love. 

In 1770, at the age of eighty-two, Swedenborg for the 
last time visited Amsterdam. John C. Cuno, who then 
saw him, thus described the impression which the aged 
visionary and thinker made upon him: "He looked so 
touchingly pious, and when I gazed into his smiling eyes 
of a heavenly blue, it always seemed to me that truth itself 
spoke from his lips." Swedenborg left Amsterdam for 
London., where, on Christmas eve, 1772, he was struck 
by hemiplegia. After a few weeks he recovered his speech, 
and his faculties were clear to the last. The chaplain of the 
Swedish legation asked him if he had not formulated the 
doctrines of his new religion in order to gain fame, and if 
he wished to recall it all before he died. The yet partly 
paralyzed man raised himself into a sitting position, say- 
ing° "As true as it is that you see me here in front of you, 
as true is also all that I have written, and in eternity you 
will find a confirmation of it. 39 The chaplain asked him 
if he wanted to receive the sacrament. Swedenborg an- 
swered? 5< I need it not; for I am already a member of the 
other world; but your intention is good, and I will with joy 






HISTORY OF SWEDEN 327 

receive the sacrament in token of the bond of unity between 
heaven and earth," Swedenborg died March 29 2 1772, and 
was buried in the Lutheran church of London. 

Swedenborg was shrewd in worldly affairs and discussed 
politics and finance in the Swedish Riksdag for nearfy a 
score of years after his visions and theological writings had 
begun to occupy most of his time. 

If the theological works of Emanuel Swedenborg at first 
were apt to discredit the results of his manifold scientific 
research in the eyes of those who did not share his theo- 
sophical views, the renown of the great religious thinker 
in later times has outshone the fame of which, as the versa- 
tile scholar and philosopher, he was so eminently worthy 
With his younger contemporary, Charles Linnaeus (or Carl 
von Linne), the case was different . There was in his career 
no radical change to divert or throw an umbrage over the 
fame he had won as a scientist of the very first rank, 

Charles Linnaeus, the most celebrated of Swedish scien- 
tists, was born at Rashult, in Smaland, in 1707, His father 
was a minister of a very subordinate charge of the state 
churcho The neighborhood in which the young Linnaeus 
grew up was not fertile, but rich in flowers, which were 
the toys and comrades of his childhood. He made but little 
progress at his work in the college of Vexio, being more 
fond of collecting and examining plants than of studying 
Greek and Latin. It was the wish of his parents that he 
should become a minister and the assistant of his father; 
but the youth had so little inclination to pursue the life or 
studies of a clergyman that he at last found it necessary 
to tell his parents so. He had found a friend and protector 
in Doctor Rothman, a district physician, who encouraged 
him to follow his ambition of becoming a naturalist and 



328 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

physician. Doctor Rothman supervised his studies in bot- 
any and succeeded in teaching him Latin by giving him 
the natural history of Pliny to study. In this manner Lin- 
naeus, who at college showed utter dislike for the classical 
languages, learned to write and speak Latin with ease 
His teachers, who at first had advised his parents to let 
him quit the book, in order to take up some trade, were 
made aware of his gifted nature, but as he was found 
deficient in the regular courses, their recommendation, 
necessary for his admittance to the University of Lund, 
was very carefully worded. "The youths in our colleges 
may be likened unto little trees in a plant school, where 
it happens, although but rarely, that young trees upon 
which the greatest care have been lavished do not turn out 
well, but resemble wild stems, yet, when removed and trans- 
planted, change their wild nature and develop into beautiful 
trees of agreeable fruit. Likewise, and for no other pur- 
pose^ this youth is sent to the university, where he may 
venture into a climate favorable to his growth," There 
was an accurate but unconscious prophecy concealed in this 
beautiful s Recommendation,' 5 which, curiously enough, has 
chosen the similes which were considered indispensable in 
the artificial language of the period from the world of 
plants^ when speaking of the future flower king of the 
North, 

The young Linnaeus made his way to the university 
town of Southern Sweden, walking the whole distance from 
Vexio to Lund, with a heavy knapsack and a light pocket- 
book. He was in hopes to win the protection of his uncle, 
the influential dean of the cathedral. Upon entering Lund, 
he heard all church bells tolling, and, upon inquiry, learned 
that they rang for the funeral of his uncle, the dean ! A 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 329 

former teacher of his managed to have him enrolled at the 
university without having to turn in the diplomatic recom- 
mendation from his college,, He took his bachelor's degree 
and was kindly encouraged by Professor Chilian StobaeuSg 
at whose house he was stopping. The mother of Stobaeus 
told him to look after the young man from Smaland, who 
was in the habit of going to sleep with his candle left burn- 
ing 2 thus liable to "lead the whole house into adventureo' 5 * 
When the learned professor looked into the matter he found 
his own works in the hands of the youth 5 who spent his 
nights reading them After that all the books and the 
heartfelt sympathy of the scholar were a.t the command 
of Linnaeus. 

In 1728 Linnaeus, so advised by his earliest protector, 
changed his place of study to the University of Upsala^ 
which at the time was better equipped and provided with 
a fine botanical garden. The young scholar endured a 
great deal of suffering for lack of funds 3 his father no 
longer being able to provide for his support. His diet was 
very lights and he wrapped his benumbed feet in paper to 
keep them from peeping out of his ragged shoes His 
father called him home to reconsider his resolution as to 
a ministerial calling. Linnaeus was ready to leave and 
paid a farewell visit to the botanic gardens. He lingered 
in melancholy thoughts before a rare flower which he in- 
tended to pluck. A harsh voice behind commanded him 
to leave the flower alone. Linnaeus turned and stood face 
to face with the dean, Olof Oelsius the Elder. In the inter- 
view which followed the young man surprised the dean, 
who was an able and enthusiastic botanist, by his excep- 
tional knowledge of plants. Celsius inquired about his 
circumstances and ended by taking him into his house and 



330 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

providing for bis future. Shortly afterward Linnseus pub- 
lished a short but important treatise on the sexual life of 
plants^ which he handed in to Professor Olof Rudbeck the 
Younger, This able scholar was forcibly struck by the in- 
genuity of the thoughts in the work s which contained the 
nucleus to the grand scientific system which Linnaeus later 
developed. When, in 1730, Rudbeck obtained a vacation he 
had Linnaeus installed as a lecturer of the botanic gardens. 
Shortly afterward Linnaeus received the commission to pay 
a visit of botanic research to Lapland, on the plants of 
which he published a remarkable work. The journey was 
made on horseback, the young scholar returning deeply 
impressed by the grandeur of natural sceneries in the ex- 
treme North 

Linnseus had to fight poverty and adversity for some 
time stilL His mother, who always had regretted that he 
should "turn out a surgeon instead of a minister," was elated 
over his first triumph when opening the field of a new science 
by his sexual system of plants. He suffered all the more at 
her death, which he was forced to conceal because he could 
not afford a mourning garbo Envious comrades put an end 
to his lectures at Upsala by having enforced, through peti- 
tions, an order against the filling of temporary vacancies 
by men who had not taken the doctor's degree. It was 
found necessary for Linnaeus to go abroad, and some 
money was subscribed by his friends for that purpose. 
In Holland he met the learned Professor Boerhave, who, 
on being made acquainted with his system of botany, 
which Linnaeus then for the first time published, received 
him with tokens of unlimited admiration and friendship. 
It was by Boerhave that the continental fame of Linnaeus 
was founded. The latter found, in the arranging of the 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 331 

great gardens of Hartekamp intrusted to him 5 a work both 
agreeable and instructive. In London ? Linnaeus broadened 
his experience with study of the rich collections of plants 
and naturalia which were made accessible to him by the 
celebrated scholar Hans Sloane, later the founder of the 
British Museum. The letter of recommendation from Boer- 
have was somewhat different to the one Linnaeus had re- 
ceived at Vexio: "Linnaeus, who hands you this letter 9 
is the only one worthy to see you, and to be seen by you. 
Those who see you together look upon two men the peers 
of which the world does hardly possess,' 9 After a stay in 
Paris, where the greatest scientists of France treated him 
with distinction, he returned go Holland, to find his friend 
Boerhave dying in Leyden. Linnaeus kissed the hand of 
the dying man, who insisted on kissing the hand of Lin- 
naeus in return, pronouncing him the greater genius, of 
whom the world should expect and receive more, 

Linnaeus, the celebrated founder of a new science 3 re- 
turned home as an unknown man. His ability as a physi- 
cian, acquired at the University of Leyden, and his growing 
continental fame soon made him distinguished. In 1741 
he was appointed professor of medicine at Upsala, but 
changed chairs with the professor of botany. The study 
of the latter science was highly developed through the 
continued research of Linnaeus, and became very popular, 
while giving a great impetus to the study of medicine. 
The grace and animation of Linnaeus as a lecturer caused 
students and scholars to flock around him in hundreds. 
The botanic excursions led by Linneeus resembled daily 
marches of triumphs, the multitude of students escorting 
their beloved teacher back to the botanic gardens with 
flowers in their hats and with music of drums and French 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

horns, Sweden^ with Upsala as a centre, was for the first 
time in history considered a home of scientific culture, to 
which naturalists gathered from all parts of the world, 
America included. Pupils of ability and distinction were 
sent by Linnaeus to strange and unknown quarters, from 
which they returned with new and unfamiliar plants, which 
were examined and classified by the flower king of the 
North. Linnaeus was honored by his contemporaries in 
such a superlative manner as no one of his countrymen, 
before or after, and few other scientists of any age or coun- 
try. Count Charles Gustavus Tessin has the credit of hav- 
ing encouraged him in his work and improved his career 
upon his return from the Continent, When ennobled, Lin- 
naeus changed his name to Yon Linne, the earlier form 
being the more familiar to English readers. King Gus- 
tavus XIL presented him with the estate Hammarby, where 
he liked to dwell, surrounded by his flowers and his family, 
resting from the fatigue caused by the endless stream of 
distinguished pilgrims who came to visit his flower court 
at Upsalao The offers of foreign monarchs to have him 
come and dwell with them were many and liberal . In 1739 
he married the love of his youth, Maria Elizabeth Moraeus, 
"and never since felt an inclination to leave Sweden." 

Linnaeus in many respects resembled Swedenborg, being 
convinced that his acceptance of truth was the correct one 
and disliking disputes. Like Swedenborg, he was pious, 
modest, benevolent and sincere. Of his own exterior and 
disposition Linnaeus has himself given the following char- 
acteristic account: ^ Linnaeus was not tall, not small, lean, 
brown-eyed, light, quick, walked briskly, did everything 
promptly s disliked slow people, was sensitive, easily moved, 
worked continuously and could not spare himself. He was 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 333 

fond of good food and drank guod drinks, but never to ex- 
cess. He cared little for exteriors, considering that man 
should adorn his dress and not vice versa. Faculty meet- 
ings were not his delight, or business s for he was made for 
quite other things, and had other things in mind than those 
which there were discussed and decided upon," In the 
preface to the late edition of his principal work ? "Systema 
[Naturae," the following noteworthy paragraph is found: "I 
saw the shadow of the Supreme Being go past me, and 
I was seized with respect and admiration„ I searched for 
His footsteps in the sand — what power ^ what wisdom! I 
saw how the animals existed only by means of the plants^ 
the plants by means of the lifeless particles^ and these in 
their turn constitute the earth„ I saw the sun and stars 
without number hanging suspended in the air, held by the 
hand of the Being of beings, the artist of this grand master- 
piece," 

Linnaeus died January I© 3 1778 ? and was buried in the 
cathedral of Upsala His botanic system has been super- 
seded by others, but the influence that his researches and 
discoveries have exerted on the natural sciences and medi- 
cine, has not ceased to be benignantly felt, nor have the 
utmost results of his researches been as yet attained, 

Andrew Celsius, professor of astronomy at Upsala, 
acquired fame as a writer en astronomy and was success- 
ful in his efforts to have an observatory built at the uni- 
versity In 1742 he introduced his invention, the Celsius 
or centigrade thermometer, which is of almost indispensable 
practical value in all physical and chemical experiments. 
Olof Celsius, Senior, the able botanist, Orientalist and 
patron of Linnaeus, was his uncle, he thus being a cousin 
of Olof CelsiuSj Junior, whose brightly written histories of 



334 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

Gustavus Yasa and Eric XIV. were translated into contem- 
poraneous French and Germane 

John Ahlstroemer accomplished more for the resurrec- 
tion of the downtrodden industry of his country than 
any one else, and therefore justly deserves the name of the 
Father of Swedish Industry, This man, who occupies an 
honored place in Swedish history, was born in 1685, of poor 
parents, at the town of Alingsos, in West Gothland, his 
original name being John Toresson He worked himself 
up in various mercantile positions in Stockholm and other 
towns, later coming to London, where he engaged in busi- 
ness of his own and became an English citizen . He saw 
with regret that his countrymen sent their money abroad 
to obtain articles which they could manufacture at home ? 
and was seized with the ambition to introduce into Sweden 
the industries which constitute the foundation of England's 
mercantile wealth. 

"When Charles XII. returned to Sweden^ Ahlstroemer 
went there also, trying to win the king to his industrial 
plans. He did not succeed, but found in Christopher Pol- 
hem a man who listened to and appreciated them. Ahl- 
stroemer intended to return to England, but was captured by 
the Danes during the journeyo On account of his English 
citizenship he soon regained his liberty, visiting England 
and the Continent, and carefully selecting everything which 
he had in view of sending to Sweden as the requisite instru- 
ments for his plans. This work sometimes involved great 
danger, as the buying of looms for hose and ribbon ; fulling 
vatSj dyes, etc. ; for the great manufacturing countries were 
keeping jealous watch that the secrets of their industries 
should not become known abroad. In a town in Holland 5 
Ahlstroemer barely missed being pelted with stones by the 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 335 

mobo Pursued by the revenue authorities 3 he managed to 
escape with his ship 3 arriving safely in Gothenburg with 
the valuable cargo and skilled laborers in his employ. 
Shortly afterward he arrived in his native town of Alingsos, 
where the industrial enterprises were established. The 
Riksdag at first was unwilling to grant him the necessary 
concessions, the clergy especially being averse to allow so 
many foreign workingmen free confession of their Catholic 
religion. In 1724 the concessions were at last obtained, and 
Ahl streamer began his course, which he was resolved should 
result in the fostering of the same industrial activity in his 
impoverished country, which he, with surprise, had noticed 
in England and on the Continent. 

In establishing his enterprises, Ahlstrcemer exhausted 
his resources, and when he tried to form a company to keep 
them going he was met with stubborn resistance, caused 
by ignorance and jealousy . He succeeded at last in obtain- 
ing the financial backing of some wealthy mine owners of 
Vermland, who took shares in his enterprises. The Riks- 
dag of 1726 encouraged him by placing high protective or 
prohibitive tariffs on foreign articles which could be pro- 
duced in the country . In the following year King Frederic 
paid a visit to Alingsos, spending a whole day in look- 
ing over the mills and factories. The king said that 
he would rather own the stock of goods of Ahlstrcemer 
than the largest arsenal in his kingdom, and saw to it that 
his servants were dressed in broadcloth manufactured at 
Alingsos, 

Alingsos saw its population suddenly increase from 300 
to 1, 800 and entered upon an era of prosperity. Ahlstrcemer's 
factories formed almost a little town of their own beside 
the older one. There were twelve looms for the manufact- 



336 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

uring of broadcloth, forty-five looms for wool, and, besides, 
cotton mills, dye works for wool and silk hose factories, 
an English tannery and various other industrial works. Also 
a foundry, with eight communicating shops, where all kinds 
of household articles of simple and composite metals were 
manufacturedo Alingsos was made a kind of normal school 
of industry for the whole country. The foreign master 
workmen, who at the beginning had charge of the factories, 
instructed in time a great number of native apprentices, who 
later found employment elsewhere^ thus distributing to 
various parts the experience obtained at Alingsos. Wool 
was the principal material in the factories, and in order 
to obtain a refined quality, Ahlstrcemer imported stocks of 
foreign breeds. He commenced with English sheep, the 
Riksdag of 1727 granting him the use of the royal estate 
Hoejentorp for the purpose. Angora goats were later im- 
ported and seemed to thrive. 

Ahlstrcemer did his country a great service by intro- 
ducing the cultivation of potatoes. The first shipment of 
this useful plant arrived in 1723, with workingmen imported 
from France, As soon as the plant was seen to stand the 
climate, larger quantities were sent for. Potatoes were 
cultivated in the vast fields around Alingsos at a period 
when they were exhibited in the botanic gardens of the Con- 
tinent as rare plants from Peru, Prejudice at first inter° 
fered, but when the soldiers returned home from Pome- 
rania with the habit of eating potatoes, and planted such 
around their cottages, the popularity of the Peruvian plant 
was assured, Ahlstrcemer also introduced the cultivation 
of tobacco and several dye plants. The coal mines, near 
Helsingborg, in Scania, commenced to be operated at his 
instigation. When the Academy of Science was instituted, 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 337 

in 1739, Ahlstrcemer was made one of its members, The 
Academy of Science served originally and in that era of 
utilitarianism a more practical purpose than later, The 
Cap administration of Arvid Horn gave comparatively lit- 
tle attention to the enterprises of Ahlstrcemer, having more 
in view to develop agriculture than industry. When the Hats 
got into power the conditions were reversed. Count Charles 
Gyllenborg, the successor of Arvid Horn as president of the 
chancery, in order to set a good example, always dressed in 
broadcloth of Swedish manufacture, Ahlstrcemer was 
made a councillor of commerce, and ennobled, while his bust 
was placed in the Exchange of Stockholm and medals issued 
in his honor by the Academy of Science, 

Ahlstrcemer was a middle-sized man of a strong consti- 
tution. He was amiable, courteous and hospitable, ever 
ready to conduct visitors through his factories and ware- 
houses. His energy was as great as his kindness, and he 
refused to recognize an enemy in anybody. The large 
profits of his plants he mostly spent on other patriotic 
enterprises, leaving hardly any other inheritance to his sons 
than an excellent education. During the last few years 
of his life he suffered the consequences of a stroke of pa° 
ralysis He died in 1761, and thus was saved from witness- 
ing the destruction which was caused to the new factory 
industry and his own works at Alingsos by the reckless 
policy of the new Caps. 

Olof Dalin is the principal poet and writer of the Period 
of Liberty, strongly influencing not only the creative minds 
of his own day, but also those who with more or less right 
have been counted as belonging to the G-ustavian Period c 
Dalin was the son of a minister in the province of Halland 
and a relative of Professor Andrew Bydelius of Lund, a 

xx 15 



338 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

historian of the older generation, who conducted the course 
of his studies . He came to Stockholm in .1726, where sev- 
eral positions in various state departments afforded oppor- 
tunity for study in libraries and archives. Dalin, from 
the year 1732 to 1734, published a magazine called "The 
Swedish Argus 2 9S) which 3 with the English "Spectator" as 
a pattern, contained articles on public and individual morals, 
with allusions to the facts of contemporary life. This pub- 
lication caused a great stir and became very popular on 
account of the acute logic and excellent language of its 
editor Dalin was appointed royal librarian by the Riks- 
dag, and, on the recommendation of Count Tessin, teacher 
to the young crown prince Gustavus. 

Dalin was an enthusiastic admirer of the glorious epoch of 
Swedish history and of the character of Charles XII., which 
caused him to join the party of the Hats. When the latter 
utterly failed In their attempts to restore the political gran- 
deur of the past, and Dalin witnessed the excesses of the 
rivalling parties, he joined the secret agitators for an in- 
creased royal power. In the literary and artistic circle of 
the brilliant Queen Louise Ulrica, Dalin was the leading 
spirit. He was not unaware of the conspiracies and in- 
trigues of the queen, and is supposed to have been the author 
of several of the sharp notes which the king added to the 
records of the state council. The Hats, who took offence 
at his sharp satires, made him resign from his position as 
the teacher of the crown prince,, After the conspiracy 
of the court party was detected, Dalin was called before a 
committee of the Estates and by order dismissed from the 
court, Dalin used the time of his compulsory isolation for 
the writing of a history of Sweden. This work, which 
never was carried further than to the end of the Period 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 339 

of Reformation, is characterized by an attractive style, 
but is not reliable as to facts. 

Dalin was allowed to return to the court in 1761, He 
stood in great favor and was covered with testimonials of 
appreciation, He died in 1763, at the moment when King 
Adolphus Frederic was resolved to make him a state coun- 
cillor. Dalin was the first writer who made Swedish his- 
tory popular, and exerted, by his poems and his magazine^ 
and by his education of Gustavus XII. 9 a considerable influ- 
ence upon the history of his own time. 

In point of scientific research the historical works of 
Sven Lagerbring have a much higher value than Dalin's 
history, although they lacked the literary excellence of 
the latter. Lagerbring, who, born in Scania, was professor 
of history at the University of Lund, carried his work to the 
times of Charles VIII. A shorter history of his was trans- 
lated into French and long formed the chief source of con- 
tinental knowledge of Swedish history. 

As a poet Dalin had a rival in the somewhat younger 
Hedvig Charlotta Nordenflycht, one of the most interesting 
characters in Swedish history of literature. Her works, 
chiefly consisting of lyrics and idyls, show a long chain 
of development from the taste of the Carolinian period to 
that of the Gustavian epoch. In her deep emotional nature 
and enthusiasm for all cultural movements she stands with° 
out a rival. Receiving an annuity from the government, 
she was after many adversities able to maintain a literary 
salon. The men who met there, like Gustavus Philip 
Creutz and Gustavus Frederic Gyllenborg, were the found- 
ers of an academic style in poetry, as was Charles Gustavus 
Tessin in eloquence. 

John Ihre is perhaps the most highly gifted of Swedish 



340 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

philologists and the first whose research had a lasting scien- 
tific value. He stood at the summit of contemporary Eiu 
ropean study of language, and rose a head or more higher 
than the philologists of his own country in that day. The 
period was characterized by a movement for the purification 
and analyzation of the language, Dalin expressing his wish 
to speak the truth to the Swedes in pure Swedish, and the 
Academy of Science taking pride in publishing their impor- 
tant papers in the mother tongue. Eric Benzelius, an able 
critic of the Gothic, and interested in Swedish dialect re- 
search, was one of the precursors of Ihre; and so was Olof 
Celsius, Senior, professor of Greek, later of Oriental lan- 
guages, who was the first to fix the age of the majority 
of .Runic inscriptions as dating from the Christian era. 

John Ihre was born, in 1707, in Lund, where his father 
was a professor of theology, a talented, witty and learned 
man. The young Ihre lost his father in 1720, after which 
time his uncle, Archbishop Steuchius of Upsala, had charge 
of his education. He later studied modern languages at the 
University of Jena, made the acquaintance of the contem- 
porary philologists of Holland, and also studied at the uni- 
versities of London, Oxford and Paris. After an absence 
of three years he returned, soon to be connected with the 
University of Upsala, where he remained for forty-two 
years as professor of rhetoric and politics. Ihre was a lib- 
eral, outspoken man, who was severely censured for his opin- 
ions upon political and religious subjects, once by the Riksdag 
being sentenced to pay fines and receiving a warning from the 
chancellor of the university. When the clergy upon another 
occasion warned the philosophers not to mix in theological 
subjects, Ihre defended himself in the following terms in 
a letter to the chancellor, Count Charles Gustavus Tessin. 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 341 

"Gracious lord! I teach eloquentiam^ politicam and tho 

states, with all things pertaining to them. To become a 
heretic I possess neither genius nor stupidity enough^ less 
an evil purpose. Therefore I am willing to forego all the- 
ology ? if only an allowance of it be made large enough for 
my private practice and edification in Christianity. I never 
intended to go any further." 

Ihre left religion and politics alone, and received many 
high distinctions in return for his great scientific meritSo 
When ennobled, he kept his old family name, stating that 
he was "somewhat known abroad under the name of Ihreo' ? 
while if he changed it to Gyllenbiorn or Yargstierna, it 
would take "some time to announce this new disguise,/ ? 
He was renowned for his ready wit 2 and wielded a consid- 
erable influence in academic circleSo Ihre was satisfied 
with his position and his science, and was not willing to 
exchange them for a political career c 

Ihre was led to the study of the Teutonic languages In 
their oldest forms by his desire to find a consistent spelling 
and correct understanding of the words in his own lan- 
guage. He was desirous of freeing it from foreign words, 
but only when those substituted were as expressive and 
comprehensible as the old. Ihre was a pioneer in the field 
of dialect lexicographers, publishing the outline of a Swed- 
ish dialect dictionary in 1766, and wrote a number of works 
pertaining to the historic forms of Gothic^ Lappish^ Finnish 
and Old Norse. Special importance is due to his epoch- 
making research concerning the language of the Codex Ar- 
genteus. He once for all settled the controversy, proving 
the Codex to contain the Gothic Bible translation of Bishop 
Wulfila against the assertions of M. Lacroze of Berlin, who 
claimed that it was written in Frankish. In regard to the 



'dil HISTORY OF SWEDKN 

Edda of Snorre Sturleson, he declared it to be intended as 
an introductory study of poesy, a handbook of poetics for 
young scalds, an opinion which has been fully established 
in a much later time. By these and other theories Ihre 
attained a much higher standpoint as a scientific critic than 
his contemporaries, He spoke of the resemblance between 
the Teutonic and the classical languages, without being able 
to find the reasons. He even to some extent anticipated the 
great discovery which after its formulator has been called 
Grimm's Law 9 by pointing out "a certain regularity of con- 
sonant shift 59 in the Teutonic languages. 

The monumental work of Ihre and the crowning effort 
of his life was prepared between the years 1750-1759. This 
Glossarium suiogothicum 5 published at the expense of the 
government, is the best Swedish dictionary of the eigh- 
teenth century. Ihre by his severe critical method kills 
the wild etymologies of the "Rudbeckian philology," turning 
to Old Swedish for the derivations, and, where this gave 
no satisfaction, to the Old Icelandic^ "because this language 
nine hundred years ago was separated from our own and 
has remained undisturbed by foreign influence.' ' From the 
Old Northern dialects he turned to Old High German, Old 
English and Gothic, the last mentioned of which he con- 
sidered the mother of the Teutonic languages. Many of 
Hire's etymologies have not been able to withstand the 
scrutiny of later criticism, but his great etymological dic- 
tionary is the product of versatile knowledge and unusual 
insight^ and has not only exerted a profound influence upon 
his own period but also served as a model for later epochs 
of philological research. 






CHAPTER XV 

Qustavian Period — Gustavus III. and Gustavus IV. 

Adolphus 




USTAVUS III., with his brilliant endowment; one 
of the most illustrious, and 3 in spite of his glaring 
faults, one of the most beloved ? of Swedish mon- 
archs, was the first king since Charles XIL who was born 
in Sweden. For this very reason, and on account of his 
amiable and charming disposition, he had won for himself 
the sympathy of the people even before his succession to the 
throne. This nephew of Frederic the Great of Prussia had 
inherited the genius^ ambition and pride of his gifted mother, 
all enlarged and intensified, and the gentleness and good 
nature of his father He was in every particular a child 
of his time 9 and every inch a king. Gustavus was decidedly 
French in education, taste and superficiality, but had by his 
first teacher Dalin been inspired with a deep love of his 
country, its history, language and traditions. He handled 
the Swedish and French languages with equal skill, and 
a more eloquent monarch has never graced a throne. He 
was passionately fond of theatricals and impressive cere- 
mony, and, like his mother and illustrious uncle, he sur- 
rounded himself with men of genius. Gustavus was be- 
trothed to Princess Sophie Magdalene of Denmark when 

only four years of age, and married her when twenty. This 

(343} 



344 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

union was arranged by the Riksdag, contrary to the wish 
of Gustavus's parents, Gustavus appeared at first to be 
deeply in love with the gentle and unpretentious princess, 
but she soon found herself as neglected by her consort as 
she was detested by his mother. The crown prince early 
began to hate the form of government which had brought 
so much humiliation to his parents. This absolutism of the 
Riksdag, which could be bought and sold through bribery 
by foreign powers, he considered dangerous to the inde- 
pendence and welfare of the country 5 and was resolved to 
change the balance of power to the hands of the king, 
of whose dignity and importance he held an exalted opinion. 
At the death of his father, Gustavus was in France, 
returning with the agreement of a secret alliance. At the 
Riksdag of 177 l s where the Caps once more came into 
power ? Gustavus IIL signed a pledge with new restrictions 
of the royal authority= But while the king officially seemed 
to desire a pacification of both parties, and his time was 
principally occupied with theatricals, embroideries and cos- 
tumes, he was secretly arranging a conspiracy He was 
crowned in May, 1772. and in August the news of a revolt 
in Scania, led by John Christian Toll, reached the capital. 
The king feigned surprise, but waited for similar news from 
Finland, whence Jacob Magnus Sprengtporten was to bring 
troops to Stockholm. As Sprengt port en's movements were 
somewhat delayed, the king had to take action himself. 
In the morning of August 19th he entered the officers' hall 
of the body-guards, where he delivered a patriotic address, 
asking the officers to follow him as their ancestors had fol- 
lowed Gustavus Vasa and Gustavus Adolphus. He was 
greeted with an enthusiasm which soon spread throughout 
the capital, assuring the king of perfect loyalty, The state 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 345 

councillors were quickly arrested and order given that no one 
should be allowed to leave the capital. The Riksdag was 
called together August 21st, and addressed by the king in 
an eloquent speech which gave a striking view of the situa- 
tion and its perils. He declared that he was not going to 
touch liberty, only to abolish misrule by the establishment 
of a firm administration. Then was read the proposition 
for a constitution which the king had prepared. The king 
alone was to be the executive, appointing higher officials 
and councillors, making alliances with foreign powers, but 
not commencing any war of attack without the consent of 
the Riksdag. The state council was to consist of seventeen 
members with deliberative, but no executive, power. The 
Riksdag was to convene at the order of the king, taxation 
and legislation to be decided on by the king and Riksdag 
in common. The judicial power of all committees was to be 
abolished. The Riksdag accepted the royal propositions, 
and one of the most smoothly and skilfully managed coups 
d'etat ever attempted was accomplished, much to the dis- 
may of Russia, Prussia and Denmark. During half a score 
of years the country enjoyed a happy peace, the king win- 
ning the love of his people and being active in administra- 
tive improvements. 

Gustavus III. was intensely interested in literature and 
art, and a writer of considerable ability, composing 
dramatic works of French pattern but with patriotic sub- 
jects. In his best creations he is influenced by Shakespeare. 
Among the poets whom he encouraged were Kellgren, Leo- 
pold, Creutz, Gyllenborg, Oxenstierna, Adlerbeth, the cre- 
ators of a classical school of Swedish poetry and drama, 
influenced by the contemporary French writers. Above 
these towers Charles Michael Bellman, who, with his com- 



346 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

posite and rich endowment, became the first great national 
poet, and of an originality as remarkable as that of any 
genius in the literature of the world. The humor intro- 
duced into Swedish literature through the contact with the 
songs of the Edda, in Bellman reaches its perfection, while 
his poetry in exquisite and triumphant grace of form out- 
rivals that of his classical contemporaries. His poems were 
almost all produced under the inspiration of the moment, 
even if later remodelled, and sung to the lute to melo- 
dies of the day, or of his own composition, His impres- 
sionistic power of description leads the thought to the mod- 
ern artists, while his ambition to unite the arts of poetry, 
music and plastics makes him a precursor of Neo-Romanti- 
eism. There is- not one accent of chauvinism, not even a 
note of patriotism, in his songs, yet he is the most beloved 
of Swedish poets, recognized as the highest exponent of the 
lyrico-rhetorical temperament of his people, a mixture of 
melancholy humor and exuberant joy in a graceful yet 
stately form. Anne Marie Lenngren was a highly talented 
poetess, who preserves the classic form for her verse, in 
which she ridicules the faults and vices of her period. Tho 
rild and Lidner were men of great genius, but of somewhat 
bizarre and neglected literary form, influenced by contem- 
porary Romanticism in Germany. Sweden continues to 
add a number of names to the galaxy of men distinguished 
in the service of natural science, those of Bergman and 
Scheele, the founders of modern chemistry, being the most 
renowned. To the Academy of Science and Academy of 
Art, established during the Period of Liberty, Gustavus 
added a Swedish Academy and a National Theatre for the 
encouragement of poetry, eloquence, music and drama. 
It is during this period that the Swedish language devel- 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 347 

oped the beauty and plasticity for which it holds the first 
rank among Teutonic dialects, and is considered one of the 
most musical languages of the world. Of artists, the paint- 
ers Hcerberg, Hillestrcem and Roslin rose to great conti- 
nental fame, while Sergei, through the genius and tenden- 
cies of his works one of the most remarkable sculptors of 
modern times, won renown for his name, but hardly the 
very highest perfection within his possibilities. His statue 
of Gustavus III. is the finest monument of Stockholm. 

Sweden, so rich in great poets, artists and scientists, 
is poor in philosophers, content with the systems of thinkers 
in more favored countries. Swedenborg is an important 
exception to this rule. Not satisfied with an original system, 
with pure reason as the fundamental principle, he divined a 
system in which philosophy and religion are inseparably 
united. Kant, when made acquainted with Swedenborg's 
earlier system, was utterly astonished, expressing fear that 
he himself had been an object of thought-transference, 
when writing his celebrated work, "Kritik der reinen Ver- 
nunft." The system of Descartes was followed by Swedish 
philosophers of the Carolinian epoch. During the Period 
of Liberty and the reign of Gustavus III., Locke, Voltaire 
and Diderot were supreme. At the close of the eighteenth 
century, Kant began to exert great influence, Benjamin 
Hoeijer being his talented and individualistic disciple, and 
enjoying the reputation of having been Sweden's greatest 
original thinker. Charles August Ehrensverd, an able war- 
rior and statesman of the Gustavian epoch, devised an 
attractive and novel, although slightly dilettantic, system 
of his own, the Philosophy of Fine Arts. 

The suspicions that Gustavus III. was not satisfied with 
the share of power which he obtained in 1772, and that he 



348 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

was anxious to gain fame by the means of war, were found 
to be justified. In 1786 he called a Riksdag, at which most 
of his propositions, to his great surprise, were stubbornly 
opposed. Catherine II. of Russia was intriguing with the 
Finnish nobles for the purpose of establishing the independ- 
ence of Finland under Russian protection. But she was 
careful not to commence hostilities. Attempts made by 
Gustavus III. to bring the Norwegian people in revolt 
against Denmark failed. And so Gustavus, who had no 
authority to begin a war of attack, arranged for a simulated 
Russian assault on the Finnish boundary, executed by Fin- 
nish peasants in disguise. He declared war on Russia, in 
June, 1788, although nobody was found willing to believe 
in the feigned cause of it. The actual hostilities were 
opened by a brilliant naval battle at Hogland, fought with 
success by the Swedish fleet under command of Prince 
Charles, the brother of the king, against the Russians. 
The king had arrived in Finland resolved to attack St. 
Petersburg, which plan he was obliged to change. All 
further operations came to a sudden standstill through 
mutiny among the Finnish officers in the royal camp at 
Anjala, 113 of them signing a document in which they 
pledged themselves to force the king to make peace and to 
convoke the Riksdag. Another document offering peace 
and a union of Finland to Russia was despatched to St. 
Petersburg with Jsegerhorn, one of the leaders. The offi- 
cers received a favorable answer from Russia, which 
was handed to the king, and the whole army was made 
acquainted with the proceedings. The king found him- 
self in a most perilous position, out of which he was 
saved as by a miracle. Denmark declared war, and the 
king hastened to embrace the opportunity to leave with 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 349 

is on or the trap in which his life and liberty were in 
danger. 

Gustavus III. sent word to several provinces, asking the 
inhabitants to rise in defence of their country. He went 
himself to Dalecarlia, where he addressed the peasants when 
coming from church, as had Gustavus Vasa. Everywhere 
the population rose in arms. The king hastened to Gothen- 
burg, which was threatened by the Danes, and had the city 
strongly fortified. England and Prussia sided with Sweden, 
and the Danes found it best to retire from Swedish terri- 
tory. 

Gustavus had won the game. Now for the stakes ■ He 
called a Riksdag in 1789. Through his personal courage 
and patriotism, Gustavus III. had recaptured the love of 
his people. The nobility was hated and despised on account 
of its responsibility for the mutiny at Anjala and for its 
intrigues with Russia. Gustavus IIL consequently stood 
exceedingly well with the three lower Estates of the Riks- 
dag, but lost their respect through the many violations of 
the law which he committed in forcing upon the Riksdag 
a new constitution which made him a ruler with almost 
absolute power. The nobility stubbornly refused to accept 
any change in the constitution. There were many stormy 
scenes, both among the nobles and in the presence of the 
king, who also paid a visit to the Riddarhus, which he left 
with the statement that the nobles were willing to subscribe, 
the latter loudly protesting. Axel von Fersen the Elder and 
several other aristocratic leaders were held in a prolonged 
arrest. Archbishop Troil told the king that he did not wish 
to be the first archbishop after Gustavus Trolle to sell the 
liberty of his country, and begged to be excused from being 
present at the deliberations. The poet and royal favorite 



350 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

Adlerbeth, himself a nobleman, pleaded in the Riksdag the 
right of his Estate to take action on the royal propositions. 
These were in private signed by the speakers of the four 
Estates and pronounced by the government as accepted, and 
were called an "Act of Union and Security." This new 
constitution gave almost absolute power to the king. The 
state council was once more, and forever, swept away and 
not even mentioned in the constitution. It was divided into 
a supreme court and a department for "the preparatioa 
of public affairs." By taking half of their members only 
from the nobility, the greatest privilege of that class was 
annulled, To the peasants was extended the privilege of 
buying land originally belonging to the nobility. By hard 
pressure, and in opposition to the nobles, the king forced the 
Riksdag to take the responsibility for the state debt, which 
had increased considerably. 

Gustavus IIL opened the Riksdag as the most popular 
man of the country. He closed it as an absolute sovereign 
who had lost the love of his people and aroused the revenge- 
ful hatred of the nobility, Gustavus III. was now enabled 
to continue the Russian war at will. His sub-commander 
Stedingk won a victory over the Russians at Porosalmi, 
the latter being led by Sprengtporten^ the former supporter 
of Gustavus IIL, now a soldier of Empress Catherine. He 
was killed in the battle. Prince Charles won a victory at 
(Eland, but was by negligence of his sub-commander de- 
tained from reaping its benefits, Charles August Ehren- 
sverd defeated a superior Russian naval force at Svensksund 
with the ^Skerry Fleet," the creation of his father, Augus- 
tinus Ehrensverd. At the order of the king, he then met 
a still larger fleet and was defeated. Dissatisfied with the 
king and the result, the valiant hero and philosopher made 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 351 

his report in the following laconic phrase* "Your majesty 
has no longer any Skerry Fleet," and resigned from his 
position as admiral-general. In the following year, 1780, 
the combined naval forces of Sweden were shut up by the 
Russian fleet in the bay of Viborg, and seemed doomed to 
destruction. But the king gave orders that all the ships 
should force a passage, and this heroic effort was success- 
fully made, through the lines of colossal Russian warships 
chained together. The Russian losses were great, and also 
those of the Swedes, on account of an explosion on board one 
of the ships. The Russians were anxious to gain the vic- 
tory that escaped them at Viborg, and decided on July 9th ? 
the day of Empress Catherine's coronation, as an appro- 
priate date. The battle was fought at Svensksund, and 
turned into a humiliating defeat, the Russians losing 53 
ships, 643 cannon and 14,000 men, and the imperial flag 
of state; twenty-six of these ships were entered in the 
Swedish navy. Peace was made at Vserselse a month later. 
No change of territory was involved, but an end was put to 
Russian intrigues, and Sweden had once more and forever 
demonstrated her power of taking care of her independence. 
The revolution in France made a deep impression upon 
the factions which in Sweden were secretly continuing their 
struggle. The nobility, in their aristocratic republicanism, 
sided with the revolutionists, while the king, an intimate 
friend of Louis XVL, tried to save the monarchy. Gus- 
tavus III, left Sweden in the summer of 1791, in order to 
receive Louis XVL and his family at the frontier, while 
Count Axel von lersen the Younger, a, son of the old aris- 
tocratic party leader wlio had taken part with distinction 
in the American revolutionary war, was very near to sav- 
ing the royal family through a flight from Paris. King 



352 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

Gustavus III. waited in vain for the royal fugitives, but 
commenced active operations for the forming of an alliance 
between Sweden, Russia, Prussia, Austria and Spain 
against republican France. Sweden and Russia made a 
treaty of mutual defence, but the negotiations for a gen- 
eral alliance were not at a favorable point when Gustavus 
III. himself fell by the aristocratic republicans of his own 
country, 

A conspiracy between the nobles had been formed, the 
majority being men of the highest station. Jacob John 
Anckarstrom, a retired officer, was found willing to commit 
the deed of killing the hated despot. After several unsuc- 
cessful attempts, the act was accomplished at a mask ball 
in the Royal Opera, the king being shot through the hip. 
All of the accomplices present were arrested, and, much 
to their disappointment, the king not dying instantly, their 
plan for a revolution was thus frustrated. Gustavus III. 
was shot March 16, 1792, and died March 26, 1792, suffer- 
ing his fate with fortitude and great presence of mind. He 
appointed his brother Charles and his favorite, Charles Gus- 
tavus Armfelt, members of the government during the 
minority of his son, Gustavus Adolphus. 

The devotion of his country returned to Gustavus III. 
at his deathbed, never to leave him. In spite of his super- 
ficiality, violation of the law, disregard for a constitutional 
government, and adventurous and expensive wars, solid 
reasons remain to love and respect his memory. His noble 
patriotism, frank heroism, brilliant genius and great gen- 
erosity are worthy of high praise. His revolution of 1789 
brought disastrous consequences, but he furthered the 
progress of democracy by annihilation of the aristocratic 
republic and saved his country from the tragic fate of 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 353 

Poland. Even if the Period of Liberty is to be credited 
for a great deal of the cultural development during his 
reign, Gustavus has a large share therein, and Esaias 
Tegner is right in his eulogy when he says: 

"There rests o'er Gustav's days a golden shimmer, 
Fantastic, foreign, frivolous, if you please; 
But why complain when sunshine caused the glamour? 
Where stood we now if it were not for these ? 
All culture on an unfree ground is builded, 
And barbarous once the base of patriotism true; 
But wit was planted, iron-hard language welded, 
The song was raised, life more enjoyed and shielded, 
And what Gustavian was, is, therefore, Swedish too." 

In the mixture of patriotism and unreserved cosmopoli- 
tanism, true genius and superficiality, earnestness and reck- 
lessness in the character of Gustavus III., the Swedes have 
recognized peculiarities of their own national temperament, 
for which they are tempted to love him as dearly, although 
not considering him to be as great, as his two predecessors 
and namesakes on the Swedish throne. By his eloquence, 
wit and amiability, his personality charmed even his ene- 
mies. In contrast to the sombre autocrats of the Barocco 
period, Gustavus III. was a typical Rococo monarch, and 
he tried to give the charms and grace of the Rococo epoch 
to his surroundings. In appearance, he was of middle size, 
slender and graceful, with a face which bespoke genius, and 
eyes of unusual size and brilliancy. 

Gustavus IV. Adolphus was a boy of thirteen at the 
death of his father. His uncle, Prince Charles, was regent 
in name, but Baron Reuterholm, the latter's favorite, was 
the real head of the government. Compared to the eccen- 
tric but energetic, generous and liberal despotism of Gus- 
tavus III., Reuterholm's was a rule of pettiness, incapa- 



354 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

bility, revenge and hypocrisy. Prince Charles was a good 
soldier, but early lost all energy through dissipation and 
a natural tendency to mysticism, secrecy and simulation. 
Reuterholm was a good worker, but of no ability as a states- 
man, sharing and increasing the love of mysticism and 
superstition characteristic of his master. The new policy 
was to estrange the friends and favorites of Gustavus III. 
as much as possible, they all being sent away under various 
pretexts. Prince Charles had from the start declared in- 
valid the postscript of the king's will, according to which 
Count Armfelt was to take part in the government. Later 
a conspiracy, with Armfelt as the leader, was detected, 
when he, who was abroad and later entered Russian service, 
was declared to have forfeited his property, rank and life. 
A young woman, Lady Madelaine Rudenschiold, who was 
one of the conspirators, was punished by being exhibited 
to the mob on the place of execution and afterward im- 
prisoned . 

Prince Charles was criticised for the leniency shown 
toward his brother's murderers, perhaps without justice, 
for the dying king had pleaded clemency in their behalf. 
Only Anckarstrom was executed, the other conspirators 
all receiving surprisingly mild sentences. This was con- 
trasted to the petty and revengeful hatred shown the oppo- 
nents of the new government, and one now recalled the 
fact that Gustavus III. in his last moments had refused 
to see the prince. That Charles also had aspirations of his 
own seems evident from the fact that he had the young 
king examined by physicians, raising doubt as to his phys- 
ical and mental fitness to ever take a hand in the govern- 
ment. 

Reuterholm made himself hated and ridiculous by his 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 355 

pettiness. Thus restrictions were placed on extravagance 
in food and clothing, the use of coffee for some time being 
entirely prohibited. The Swedish Academy was disbanded 
because it did not make Reuterholm a member. The lib- 
erty of the press was extended and then suddenly restricted. 
Thorild, the writer and poet, was exiled for agitation 
against the old division of the Riksdag into four houses, 
"because its four Estates always have been bringing about 
one unsettled state." Characteristic of the opinion of Reu- 
terholm's administration are the words which the warrior 
and philosopher, Charles August Ehrensverd, gave him in 
the course of a quarrel between the two: "Monsieur is am- 
bitious to govern, but monsieur does not know how." The 
best things accomplished during this period were the estab- 
lishment of a military academy at Carlberg, and improve- 
ments of the Bible translation and the ritual and hymn-book 
of the church. 

The attitude toward France was changed with the 
change of government, Sweden being the first power to 
recognize the French republic. With that country and 
Denmark close intimacy was formed, which enraged Russia 
and England. In order to pacify the empress, old negotia- 
tions for a marriage between King Gustavus Adolphus and 
Alexandra, a niece of Empress Catherine II., were reopened 
and a decision reached. The king left for St. Petersburg. 
When the great ceremony was to take place, the empress 
sat there waiting with her brilliant court for several hours. 
No Gustavus Adolphus appeared. In the last moment he 
had been asked by a priest to grant his future consort, 
Alexandra, liberty to practice her Greek Catholic faith in 
public, which he refused to do, thus dropping the whole 
matter. The indignant empress was suddenly taken ill and 



356 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

died a few weeks later. Soon afterward the king married 
the beautiful princess Frederica of Bade. 

Gustavus IV. Adolphus was declared of age and took 
charge of the government when eighteen (in 1796). Reuter- 
holm was dismissed, and Prince Charles retired. The king 
surrounded himself with the friends of his father, Armfelt 
and Toll being recalled, the latter taking excellent care of 
foreign affairs, as far as his authority went. But Gustavus 
IVo ruled alone, without favorites or influential advisers. 
This was most unfortunate, for he was entirely without the 
gifts of a regent. He was a lover of order, economy, jus- 
tice and pure morals, but through lack of mental and phys- 
ical strength his good qualities were misdirected. His 
father's tragic fate had a sinister influence upon his mind, 
the equilibrium of which was shaken also by the outrages 
of the revolutionists in France. Of a morbid sensibility, 
and without inclination to confide in any one, his religious 
mysticism led him into a state close to insanity. He im- 
agined himself to be a reincarnation of Charles XII., while 
in Napoleon he recognized the monster of the Apocalypse, 
which he himself was sent to fight and conquer. 

Gustav r us IV, went to an extreme in his fear of liberal 
movements, placing severe censorship on the periodical 
press, book market and universities. Benjamin Hceijer, 
the great philosopher, for some time left his chair at Upsala 
and the country. A man who was resolved to "go even 
to the doors of hell in search of truth" could not be in sym- 
pathy with the bigot despot. Hard times, produced by 
failure of crops and fisheries, and by maritime losses during 
the war between England and France, threw added um- 
brage over the reign of Gustavus IV. He convoked a 
Riksdag, in 1800, in order to raise money to cover the debts 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 357 

involved by his predecessor. He never repeated the experi- 
ment. The nobles sanctioned the absolute rule, but stormy 
sessions ensued over the royal propositions, six nobles re- 
signing from titles and privileges, six others their seats 
in the Riksdag. The peasants, almost as unyielding, were 
pacified by Toll. By his own authority, the king mort- 
gaged the Swedish city of Wismar, in Mecklenburg, to the 
ruler of said duchy for a period of one hundred years, in 
receipt for a sum of some two million dollars. 

There was no question in which the insanity of the king 
became more apparent or disastrous than in his foreign 
policy. An alliance of armed neutrality between Sweden, 
Russia and Denmark came to naught through the in- 
activity of Gustavus IV., and he stubbornly refused to 
accept the repeated offers of Napoleon of an alliance with 
France in the combat with the powers. Things took a 
sinister aspect when an intimate alliance was effected be- 
tween Napoleon and Alexander of Russia, in 1807. Napo- 
leon had lost patience with the lunatic king, and tried to 
call forth a catastrophe by urging Alexander to capture 
Finland, which he at first was unwilling to do. The French 
invaded Swedish Pomerania, and Toll was able to save the 
little Swedish army of 10,000 only by means of a most skil- 
ful diplomacy. Denmark, attacked by England, declared 
war against Sweden. Gustavus IV. made great prepara- 
tions, sending Armfelt with one army to the Norwegian 
frontier and Toll with another to Scania. The regular 
army counted 100,000 men, and a great force of militia was 
organized. But through gross incapability of the govern- 
ment the majority of troops were never used, the militia 
suffering immensely through neglect and hunger. 

Czar Alexander at last decided to capture Finland. He 



358 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

called it himself an act of bad faith and treason against a 
relative and ally, and in a treacherous way he carried on his 
preparations. The Swedish ambassador was misled as to 
the object of the latter, and when informed received exag- 
gerated accounts as to the force which was to invade Fin- 
land. Gustavus IV. was alarmed and gave the old and 
incapable field-marshal, Klingspor, appointed to command 
the army in Finland, directions to save his troops in the best 
way possible. And so commenced, in February, 1808, the 
war which after a heroic struggle was to separate the Finns 
from their Swedish brethren. Not only were the Finnish 
troops possessed of the noblest patriotic spirit, but they had 
also courageous and distinguished commanders, who, if 
duly supported and intrusted with more authority, would 
probably have been able to ward off the attack. Conspic- 
uous among the latter were C. J. Adlercreutz, born in Fin- 
land, the hero of Siikajoki, Lappo and Oravais; G. C. von 
Dcebeln, the victor of Juntas, and J. A. Sandels, the hero 
of Pulkkila, Indensalmi and Virta, all three of them veter- 
ans from the war of Gustavus III. 

The aged General Klercker commanded a Finnish army 
at Tavastehus, where Klingspor arrived with his royal orders, 
which were for retreat and evacuation of the country. The 
troops were deprived of their hopes of a battle and forced 
to make a retreat of nearly 600 miles, suffering from cold 
and hunger. The retreat continued without interruption 
for two months, until the army, in April, found itself be- 
tween Brahestad and Uleoborg. A battle was fought at 
Siikajoki, April 18th, the sub-commander, General Adler- 
creutz, receiving instructions to make a stand against the 
enemy until the safety of the army supplies could be in- 
sured. After five hours of fighting, the Finns won a glo- 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 359 

rious victory over the Russians. But royal orders for a 
continued retreat arrived, and the Russians took possession 
of Siikajoki. 

As long as Sveaborg, the Gibraltar of the North, was 
safe, the final outcome of the struggle must remain unde- 
cided. Sveaborg, the creation of Augustinus Ehrensverd, 
is situated on seven islets and consists of several strong 
works partly cut out of the rock and in an admirable way 
protecting and supplementing each other. The fortress was 
defended by 6,000 men, with 1,000 cannon and ample pro- 
visions of all kinds; in the harbor a division of the Swedish 
navy was at anchor. Olof Cronstedt, the commander, was 
dissatisfied with the. king and a secret supporter of Prince 
Charles. His sub-commander, Jsegerhorn, a brother of the 
leader of the Conspiracy of Anjala, was a traitor, probably 
in understanding with the Russians even before the war. 
A little army of 4,000 Russians under the command of Van 
Suchtelen was sent against Sveaborg. This force was too 
small to make a serious attack; it was not able to capture 
any of the fortifications; the naked rocks made it impossible 
to build any earthworks. What the Russians could not 
effect by force they accomplished by treachery, winning 
over the commanding officers of Sveaborg through threats 
and promises. When the Swedish and Finnish soldiers saw 
the queer behavior of their officers they planned a mutiny; 
but this was not carried out on account of lack of leader- 
ship. The officers tried by the most shameful lies to pacify 
the soldiers, Jaegerhorn taking the leading part in these 
proceedings. Sveaborg surrendered May 3d, all Swedes 
being made prisoners of war, but the Finns given free 
leave. When the troops saw the small force of Russians 
and their miserable equipment^ „hey were enraged, breaking 



360 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

their weapons and tearing their banners to pieces. Cron- 
stedt, Jaegerhorn and the other commanding officers became 
Russian citizens, and received high outward distinctions; 
but by both Russians and Finns they were ever treated with 
cold contempt on account of their shameless treason. 

With the fall of Sveaborg, all hope of saving Finland 
was lost. In the summer of 1808, her army fought several 
glorious battles under the command of Adlercreutz, Dcebeln 
and Sandels, but in the autumn it was attacked by a su- 
perior Russian force and was nearly closed in between Old 
Carleby and Vasa, Gripenberg stood with one division at 
Old Carleby ? furthest to the north, Dcebeln lay prostrated 
by illness at New Carleby. and Adlercreutz stood with the 
central body of troops at Oravais, about twenty miles south 
from the latter town, The Russian army attacked the force 
which was with Doebeln, resolved to cut off Adlercreutz 
from a retreat. One attack was already made at Juutas, 
near New Carleby. when Dcebeln, alarmed by the news and 
heedless of his serious illness, was seen approaching. His 
men received him with enthusiasm, collected their scatter- 
ing forces and proved victorious over the attacking enemy. 
The Russians retreated and Adlercreutz was saved. 

The famous battle of Oravais .was fought the following 
day r September 14th, The Swedish army was arranged 
on a promontory in the sea, with artillery on a hill to the 
north, close to which a detachment of the regiment of Hel- 
singland was arranged in an excellent position. Another 
detachment of the same regiment was by a little brook at 
the south base of the promontory, with two cannon, under 
the command of Count William von Schwerin, a boy of six- 
teen years. At this latter point the battle was begun at five 
o'clock in the morning. The Russians, 8,000 strong, with 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 361 

twenty cannon and commanded by Kamenski, approached 
a bridge leading over the brook. The 400 Swedes offered 
a plucky resistance to the overwhelming force. Every time 
the bridge was filled by Russians, Schwerin swept it clear 
with the fire from his two cannon. This heroic struggle 
was kept up for four hours, when the Helsings had no more 
cartridges for their guns wherewith to support the artillery 
fire. The aide-de-camp Biornstierna, who was despatched 
thither by Adlercreutz, saw a pitiable sight. Most of the 
officers of the 400 Swedes were killed and the Russians were 
storming across the bridge in heavy masses. "Now, 
count," cried Biornstierna, "let us see what your artillery 
amounts to!" Schwerin let the Russians approach until 
only fifty feet from the cannon, when he ordered : "Fire!" 
The whole first line of the Russian column fell. Schwerin 
gave command to have the cannon dragged a hundred 
yards back and then fired> with the same disastrous effect. 
Thus the retreat was made from hill to hill. At last the 
young hero received a mortal wound and his men were 
surrounded on every side, With a final effort he rose to 
his feet, broke through the lines with his valiant Helsings 5 
and died in the midst of the Swedish troops. 

Adlercreutz closely watched the movements of the Rus- 
sianSj and saw an opportunity to break through their centre, 
which was successfully done, the enemy turning into flight. 
It looked like an overwhelming defeat for the Russians, 
when reinforcements arrived in the last moment, and the 
exhausted Swedes had to stop fighting on account of the 
darkness of the night. After a battle of fifteen hours 
the Swedes had lost 2,600 men, or nearly one-third of their 
forces, but not one single cannon or banner. The remnants 
of the army followed the "royal orders of retreat," crossing 

xx 16 



362 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

the Swedish frontier. Finland was lost and Sweden proper 
in danger. 

Only a revolution could save the country. The repub- 
lican aristocrats were the ones to bring it about. A con- 
spiracy among them was formed, George Adlersparre and 
Ch. H. Anckarsverd being the leaders. When it was ru- 
mored that the former, with the western army division, 
of which he was the commander, had left the Norwegian 
frontier and was marching on Stockholm, Gustavus IV. 
sent order to Toll in Scania to meet him with his troops, 
while the king seemed to make preparations to leave. 
Great excitement reigned in Stockholm, and General Ad- 
lercreutz, who recently had been received in the capital 
with enthusiasm, resolved to take action in preventing the 
king's departure. Accompanied by half a dozen officers, 
he entered the king's bedchamber the morning of March 
13th, and took possession of the king in person, who made 
a struggle and later a frustrated attempt to escape. The 
body-guards were persuaded to remain inactive. Prince 
Charles was proclaimed regent. Neither this fact nor the 
arrest of the king seemed to impress the population, who 
received the news with ice-cold reserve. The king was 
conducted to Drottningholm, and later to Gripsholm, where 
he signed the document of abdication, finally to be escorted 
out of the country with his family, never to return. He 
died in St. Gallen in 1837. 

The regent's first duty was to ward off the Russian in- 
vasion of Norrland and to obtain peace. Napoleon con- 
gratulated Sweden on having got rid of the * 'supremacy 
of a fool," and sanctioned an armistice, granted by his 
general. Marshal Bernadotte, who commanded an army 
in Seeland, ready to attack Sweden. Peace was made in 




GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS 



Sweden.' 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 363 

Paris, Sweden receiving back Pomerania in return for a 
promise to close its own harbors against English ships. 
Peace with Denmark was made, with no change of territory 
on either side. Attempts to rout the Russian army of in- 
vasion at Ratan, in "West Bothnia, were unsuccessful, but 
it withdrew by its own choice. In the treaty of peace 
signed at Fredericshamn, September 17, 1809, Finland, the 
archipelago of Aland and a part of Swedish Bothnia were 
ceded to Russia, the rivers of Torne and Muonio to form the 
boundary line. 

Finland, since time immemorial in intimate relations 
with Sweden, from whom she had received a portion of her 
population, had for 600 years with her mother country 
formed integral parts of the same realm. Sweden had 
given to Finland her religion, constitution, laws, privileges 
and culture, and in return received her fidelity and a host 
of patriotic men eminent in affairs of war and peace. To- 
gether the Swedes and Finns had fought on the battlefields 
of Europe for the political grandeur of their country and 
the religious liberty of the world. United to Russia, Finland 
preserved her institutions and privileges unmolested, and 
has, up to date, enjoyed a peaceful development greater than 
would perhaps have been her share under Swedish rule. 
The mother country was after this great loss forced to con- 
centrate her energy on a more solid material progress, and 
has, according to the prophecy of Esaias Tegner, "within 
the boundary of Sweden reconquered Finland." The Finns 
have proved themselves to be one of the most talented and 
energetic of nations. Out of the two million inhabitants 
of Finland, two-fifths are Swedish, forming the nobility and 
the majority of the cultured classes. Already at the time 
of the separation from Sweden was born the national singer 



364 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

of Finland, John Ludvig Runeberg, who was to become the 
greatest poet that ever wrote in the Swedish language and 
one of the greatest that ever lived. In his immortal songs 
of "Finland's latest war," the two countries have a great 
common inheritance. Sweden dreamed of reconquering 
Finland as soon as a good warrior ascended the throne. 
This hope was given up forever. But the most intimate 
sympathy still reigns between the two countries. ■ In case 
that harm to Finland or her home-rule should be done, 
and her independence be lost, the Swedish people would not 
be in a position to avenge such a crime, but it would cause 
profound grief and indignation, and would be considered 
a shameful act of violence which the glory of no peace 
emperor would suffice to cover. 

By the revolution of 1789, Sweden for a second time 
in her history surrendered her liberty into the hands of an 
energetic and patriotic ruler only to see the absolute power 
utterly abused by an incompetent successor. The loss and 
suffering were almost as great as at the death of Charles 
XII., but the era of democracy, peace and prosperity so 
much closer at hand. It was the spirit of the aristocratic 
republicanism which caused the timely downfall of abso- 
lute monarchy, but it was in its turn destined to fall for the 
spirit of democracy and a constitutional government. 




CHAPTER XVI 

The Constitutional Monarchy — Charles XIII. and the 

early Bernadottes 

HARLES XIII. succeeded his nephew. He was 
chosen king after a new constitution had been 
formulated and accepted by the Riksdag of 1809, 
Charles XIII. was one of the most unsympathetic of Swed- 
ish kings, but his reign marks a new period in Swedish 
history, commencing the era of constitutional government. 
The new constitution to which the king subscribed was not 
a radical document ; it only reduced the power of the king. 
Hans Jserta, one of the nobles who had renounced their 
privileges and been active in the conspiracy against Gus- 
tavus IV., was the leading spirit of the constitutional com- 
mittee and was appointed secretary of state in the new 
cabinet. Urgent appeals of the peasant Estate to reduce 
or abolish the privileges of the upper classes were of no 
avail, no reform of state or society yet being made A 
proposition by Count von Platen to introduce a compulsory 
militia defence was voted dowm This Riksdag, which 
lasted for a year, gave fuller liberties to the press, which at 
once used it to voice the popular dissatisfaction with the 
state of affairs. It was necessary to select an heir to the 

throne, as the old king was childless, Prince Christian 

(365) 



366 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

August of Augustenborg being chosen, much in opposition 
to the nobles, who wanted the son of Gustavus IV 

The prince of Augustenborg, who was Danish governor 
general of Norway, accepted, and was adopted by the king, 
changing his name to Charles August. He was a plain, 
resolute and active man, unattractive in appearance, but 
of a kind and noble character. Beloved by the lower 
classes, who had effected his selection, he was treated coldly 
by the Gustavian aristocrats and by Queen Hedvig Elisa- 
beth Charlotte (Princess of Oldenburg), who all favored the 
selection of young Gustavus, the son of exiled Gustavus 
IV. Reports of attempts to poison the heir-apparent were 
in circulation even before he arrived in Sweden. Prince 
Charles August himself often said that he thought he would 
die young by some stroke of paralysis, but he paid no atten- 
tion to the warnings given hinio During a parade of troops 
at Qvidinge, in Scania, he was suddenly seen to lose con- 
sciousness and dropped dead from his horse. Peculiarities 
in the investigation of the corpse, led by his physician, 
caused a second post-mortem examination, in which the 
celebrated chemist Berzelius took part. The report seemed 
in favor of the supposition that the death was caused by 
poison. The indignation of the populace knew no bounds. 
The friends of the government tried to coin political money 
by insinuating that the Gustavians, particularly Count 
Axel von Fersen the Younger and his sister, Countess 
Piper, were the responsible parties. At the burial of the 
dead prince the mob of Stockholm perpetrated one of the 
most hideous murders of a man who was without doubt 
innocent. When Count Fersen, in the capacity of marshal 
of the realm, was to open the procession, he was warned 
not to do so, but in pride and sense of duty resolved to meet 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 367 

his fate. Approaching the church of Riddarholm, his car- 
riage was pelted with stones, Fersen himself seeking shelter 
in various places, but being pursued by the mob and killed. 
Fersen had sought protection in a body of troops, whose 
officers commanded them to turn him over to the mob. 
Thus perished a man who, with Curt von Stedingk, had 
received the order of Cincinnatus from the hands of George 
Washington, and who once was so near saving Louis XVI. 
and Marie Antoinette from their cruel fate. Fersen 's 
brother was saved only by mere chance and his sister by a 
flight in disguise. The mob now was resolved to attack 
Countess Piper, who was thought to be at the castle, and 
the queen herself. But the authorities, who had brought 
shame on themselves by their unwillingness to save Fersen, 
interfered, directing a few shots of cannon against the mob, 
dispersing it and killing many (June 10, 1810). 

Sweden was once more without an heir-apparent to the 
throne. Frederic, the brother of Charles August, was 
favored by the king. Frederic VI. of Denmark was a 
candidate, but the old national hatred against the Danes 
was still too strong to make his selection possible. A count 
of Oldenburg was also mentioned by some. The Gustav- 
ians, to whom Adlercreutz belonged, dared not openly push 
their candidate of the old royal line. The patriotic noble- 
men in power were anxious to see some great general 
chosen, regardless of a royal pedigree, who could recapture 
Finland. King Charles sent two emissaries to Napoleon 
to notify him of the death of Charles August and the selec- 
tion of his brother. Then one of the most original and 
daring schemes ever attempted on such a line was carried 
through by Count Otto Mcerner, one of the emissaries. On 
his own responsibility, he inquired of Marshal Bernadotte, 



368 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

one of Napoleon's ablest generals, if he would consent to 
become heir-apparent to the Swedish throne. Bernadotte 
consented, and the consent of Napoleon was obtained 
through the Swedish ambassador in Paris. Upon his re- 
turn, Mcerner was ordered to leave the capital by the min- 
ister of state, who blamed him for his unauthorized action. 
But from Upsala Mcerner led an eager agitation, with the 
result that the Riksdag of CErebro selected Bernadotte, 
who was represented by a secret emissary. Thus the two 
generals who, at the abdication of Gustavus IV., were, one 
in Norway, the other in Denmark, with troops ready to 
attack Sweden, both within one year were chosen to succeed 
Charles XIII. 

Jean Baptiste Jules Bernadotte was born at Pau, in 
South France, in 1764. The son of a lawyer, he worked 
himself up in the army and was by the Revolution enabled 
to reach the high military stations for which his eminent 
genius had destined him. Next to Napoleon the ablest 
of French generals, he opposed the imperial tendencies of 
the latter, but was later repeatedly used by the emperor 
to fulfil important duties as a warrior, diplomatist and 
statesman, receiving the rank of a marshal of France and 
the title of Prince of Ponte Corvo. Related by marriage, 
the two were never on terms of intimacy, and the Swedish 
politicians who thought to please the emperor, and gain 
a strong point with him by the selection of Bernadotte, were 
mistaken. Bernadotte joined the Lutheran church at Elsi- 
nore and landed in Sweden October 20, 1810. By his im- 
pressive appearance, his amiability and his genius, he soon 
won all hearts. As he never acquired the Swedish lan- 
guage, and as his superior ability as a statesman and war- 
rior was not always comprehended, he suffered often 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 369 

through misunderstandings by his new countrymen, who 
never ceased to admire his eminent genius. Prince Charles, 
or Charles Johann, as he called himself henceforward, was 
of a commanding presence and had an interesting face, 
surrounded by black curly hair. His fascinating ways and 
winning disposition held captive the admiration even of his 
political opponents. Prince Charles refused to submit to 
the undue influence with which Napoleon tried to fetter 
him, and always carried high and with patriotic independ- 
ence the interests of his adopted country „ 

Napoleon soon found reason to be offended with Sweden. 
Through the peace of Paris, Sweden had agreed to close its 
harbors to England, but in Gothenburg, which town had 
suffered destruction by fire and was recently rebuilt, a lively 
traffic was secretly carried. on, connecting England with 
Northern Europe and enriching Gothenburg. Napoleon 
was enraged and forced Sweden to declare war on Eng- 
land, which power, realizing the circumstances, did not 
open any hostilities, and allowed the commercial traffic to 
continue, although more secretly. Prince Charles, who 
from the start exerted a strong influence upon the govern- 
ment, effected an approach to Russia and England to save 
the dignity of Sweden, much to Napoleon's dismay. He 
also put the army in a satisfactory condition by recruiting. 
This caused a revolt in Scania, which was subdued with 
severity. The Riksdag of 1812 passed a law for the estab- 
lishment of a compulsory militia, all men between twenty- 
one and twenty-five years old being registered in classes 
according to age and instructed in military tactics and 
discipline. 

Napoleon tried by various methods to subdue and hu- 
miliate the independence of his Swedish ally, which, when 



370 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

fruitless, led him to acts of hostility. Prince Charles made 
peace with Ed gland and an alliance with Russia, who 
promised 20,000 men to assist in the conquest of Norway. 
When Napoleon and Alexander of Russia commenced war 
against each other, popular opinion in Sweden sided with 
the former, but Prince Charles, who knew in detail the 
nature of Napoleon's power and its lack of a solid founda- 
tion, tried to make his views clear. He met Alexander 
personally, agreeing with him on plans of mutual action, at 
Abo in 1812. After Napoleon's unsuccessful march against 
Russia, Swedish opinions changed and Beruadotte had free 
hands to follow up his policy. England formed an alliance 
with Sweden, agreeing to support the conquest of Norway 
and ceding the island of Guadeloupe (later sold to France 
by Sweden). In 1813, 25,000 Swedish troops were sent 
to Germany, joining the continental allies, who, divided 
in three armies, were to attack Napoleon, according to 
plans mostly mapped out by Prince Charles of Sweden. 
The latter was to command the Northern army of 100,000 
men, Swedes, Prussians, Russians and English, but his 
position was a difficult one, for his superior tactics were 
misunderstood by his subordinates and by Blucher, the 
valiant but headstrong commander of 50,000 Prussians, 
who formed the Silesian army. But through the battles 
of Grossbeeren (August 23d), Dennewitz (September 6th), 
and Leipsic (October 16-19), the eminence of Bernadotte's 
genius was fully brought out, his leadership and the Swed- 
ish troops taking honorable part in each. Napoleon and his 
armies were defeated and pursued by the allies. The mon- 
archy voted a resolution of thanks to Prince Charles, who, 
with his army, marched northward to carry out the ultimate 
object of his policy, the conquest of Norway, the plans of 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 371 

which had been made by Count Platen and handed him 
before he ever left Paris. 

Denmark had declared war on Sweden and sided with 
Napoleon. By turning against Denmark the former Mar- 
shal Bernadotte saved himself from the necessity of making 
an attack on the country of his birth. Lubeck surrendered, 
the Danes were defeated at Borahceved, Kiel and Glucks- 
burg were captured, and the whole of Holstein occupied. An 
armistice was agreed to. Denmark offered the diocese of 
Drontheim, but Prince Charles was resolved to expel Den- 
mark from the Scandinavian Peninsula. January 14, 1814, 
peace was made at Kiel, Denmark ceding to Sweden the 
whole of Norway, except Iceland and Fero Islands, and 
receiving Swedish Pomerania and the island of Rugen in 
compensation. 

Norway, united with Denmark ever since the days of 
Queen Margaret, in a relation of more or less neglected 
conditions, during which her original independence was 
lost, had of late not been satisfied to remain under Danish 
supremacy. The governing class of officeholders was to 
a great extent of Danish origin and tendencies, and the 
patriotism of the population at large dates from a later 
period. Among the more cultured classes the revolution in 
France and close relations with England had fostered a 
desire for political independence. The Danes made use 
of this fact in order to try to maintain the relation with 
Denmark in some way. The Danish crown prince, Chris- 
tian Frederic, was in 1813 made governor-general of Nor- 
way. He was a man of some brilliant gifts, but without 
any great ability. By journeys in the country he ac- 
quired popularity and adherents. In February, 1814, a 
meeting was held at Eidsvold by men of prominence, who 



372 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

declared the prince regent. May 17th a constitution was 
adopted and Christian Frederic elected king of Norway. 
His courteous offer of extending his rule to Sweden was 
there met by derision. After a triumphal return to Stock- 
holm, Prince Bernadotte gathered his forces and attacked 
Norway both by land and sea, the aged King Chatles XIII. 
having command of the navy. An army of 20,000 Swedes 
entered Norway under command of Von Essen, who cap- 
tured the fortifications at Svinesund. The navy took pos- 
session of the islands in the archipelago outside of Frederic- 
stad, which town was captured, with the fortress Kongsten, 
100 cannon and considerable stores of weapons and provis- 
ions. The Norwegian army of 30,000 men was located in 
various places with the central body of troops at Moss. 
The plan of Prince Charles was to enclose it from all sides. 
A smaller Swedish force of 3,000 men was repulsed by the 
Norwegians in two conflicts at Lier and Medskog, cele- 
brated by the latter as important victories. In the mean- 
time the Swedish army proceeded northward and the fleet 
penetrated to the bay of Christiania. The plan to enclose 
the Norwegian army at Moss was being carried into effect 
in order to finish the war by one single battle, when nego- 
tiations for peace were begun. 

Prince Charles was anxious to have the conflict brought 
to a rapid close because he feared that the powers, envious 
of Sweden's good fortune and dissatisfied with the refusal 
of Prince Charles to join in an attack on France, might 
take unfavorable decisions at the approaching congress of 
Vienna. Prompted by these reasons, and perhaps influ- 
enced by his experience of revolutionary movements, Prince 
Charles offered to sanction Norway's constitution only with 
such changes as were necessary for a union with Sweden, 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 373 

besides demanding the abdication and speedy departure 
of Christian Frederic. On these terms peace was made at 
the convention of Moss, August 14, 1814. At the first 
meeting of the Norwegian Storthing, or Diet, the terms of 
peace were sanctioned and Charles XIII. chosen king 
of Norway. At the Congress of Vienna, in 1815, treaties 
were signed between Sweden and Prussia and between Den- 
mark and Prussia, according to which Swedish Pomerania 
and Rngen were ceded to Prussia on the payment of about 
$2,000,000, and the duchy of Lauenburg ceded to Denmark. 
In the relation between Sweden and Norway no change was 
made, and Denmark lost all hope of the restitution of the 
latter country. 

The great moderation shown by Prince Charles in the 
acquisition of Norway has been criticised in various ways, 
but none of the arguments used against it have them- 
selves been able to bear a critical test. The idea of uniting 
the two countries as independent states was older in Sweden 
than the very constitution of Norway which Prince Charles 
accepted. It was the idea of the leading men in Sweden 
who had dethroned Gustavus IV. in 1809. The Scandina- 
vian Union is not the best imaginable, has brought Sweden 
no added power or security, and has placed her king in 
a difficult position. The only bond of union is the king, 
the two countries each having their constitution, diet and 
cabinet. There is only one department in common, the one 
of which the Swedish minister of foreign affairs is the head 
and which settles all relations with other countries for both 
Sweden and Norway. Three members of the Norwegian 
cabinet are residents of Stockholm, to prepare affairs per- 
taining to the Norwegian administration and to partake in 
affairs involving both countries. These stipulations are 



374 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

made by the Act of Union, accepted in 1815 by the Diets 
of both countries. According to the Norwegian constitu- 
tion, the king can use no greater force than 3,000 men out- 
side the Norwegian boundary, except with the special con- 
sent of the Diet. Thus Sweden cannot in case of war expect 
any solid support from her sister country. The loose con- 
nections of the Union did not become apparent during the 
reigns of Charles XIII. and his successor, and the powers 
of Europe were not aware of them. Thus the Union served 
its purpose as offering a solid front of unity and strength 
to the powers who were dividing and redividing almost 
every territory on the map of Europe. 

Charles XIII. died in February, 1818, at the age of 
seventy, and his talented queen followed him a few months 
later. 

Charles XIV. Johann was fifty-four years of age when 
ascending the throne, but a man in his prime. To the 
dignity of the crown he brought a great personal influ- 
ence, and his fame as a warrior, which spread throughout 
Europe. The firm diplomatic relations with Russia were 
continued, but approaches to England were also made. 
Charles XIV. gave close personal attention to the adminis- 
tration, being especially interested in the defence, finances, 
canals and roads. With his brilliant genius, quick temper 
and sense of superiority, the king sometimes reigned more 
alone and by his own decision than was considered advis- 
able; but in the majority of cases he was influenced by the 
able men of his cabinet — Wetterstedt, Rosenblad, Skjcelde- 
brand, Cederstrom and Wirsen. An intimate friend of the 
king was Count Magnus Brahe, who, though not a member 
of the cabinet, influenced the government more than was 
thought compatible with its dignity. Count Brahe, the head 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 375 

of one of the most distinguished of aristocratic families, used 
his great influence over the king mostly in a noble way, him- 
self being raised to the highest dignities of the state. He 
was blindly devoted to the king, followed him like a shadow, 
taking infinite care of him during his last illness, and dying 
only a few months after his royal friend. 

One of the most remarkable works carried on during the 
reign of Charles XIV. was the Gofcha Canal system, which 
was brought to completion. The old bishop Brask had 
spoken of a connection between the lakes of Venar and Vet- 
ter, and the great Oxenstierna thought of a canal between 
the North Sea and the Baltic across Sweden» Charles XII. 
had ordered Polhem to make a trafficable passage around 
the waterfalls of Trollhetta, which was done after new plans 
daring the reign of Gustavus IV. During the Period of 
Liberty, Daniel Thunberg had made plans for the whole 
canal system. But Count Balzar von Platen was the man 
to make the great work a realized fact, devoting his whole 
life to it, conquering distrust, opposition and lack of funds. 
He spent six years in preliminary surveys before taking up 
the agitation for the realization of his plans. During the 
whole progress of the work, his efficient activity in looking 
after every detail could only be compared to his constant 
agitation in the Riksdag for the support of the immense 
enterprise and his scrupulous attention to the financial part 
of it. When the great canal was opposed as an unpatriotic 
scheme, endangering the defence of the country, Platen 
answered by completing plans for a colossal fortress in the 
heart of the canal system, which, when erected, became 
the strategic stronghold of Sweden, and was named Carls- 
borg. Platen died as governor-general of Norway, seeing 
his great life-work nearing completion. The Gotha Canal 



376 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

is the most remarkable of its kind in Europe, being 259 
miles long, with 74 locks, many of which have been cut out 
of solid granite hills. It is of great value to commerce and 
affords a most picturesque scenic tour. 

Charles XIY. met with a power in politics which, from 
the start not strong enough to carry away victory, ended 
by attaining its goal. It was the liberal opposition in the 
Riksdag, supported by a liberal press. Charles XIV., in 
his native country, had seen to what an infamy the abuse 
of liberal forms of government could lead, and he was 
sternly resolved to antagonize any movement which aimed 
to introduce more democratic principles in the handling 
of state affairs and in the remodelling of the system of 
representation. Charles XIV. was in a delicate personal 
position. He was the only one of the Napolaonic marshals 
who preserved his throne after the fall of the emperor, and 
the strong continental reaction looked askance at this new 
man who wore one of the oldest crowns of Europe. But 
his great reputation as a warrior and statesman, and his 
persistent peace policy, ought to have been to him sufficient 
guarantees of the fidelity of his subjects. Charles XIV., 
in the agitation against the self-willed cabinet, saw an 
enmity against himself. By a network of secret detec- 
tives, the king tried to uncover conspiracies and plots which 
existed in his imagination only, or in that of those who were 
aware of his weakness and sought to gain personal favors 
by making use of it. The severity with which the press 
was censured and its members punished created a bitter- 
ness against the king personally, which ceased only during 
the few last years of his reign. With the new constitution 
a law establishing full liberty of public utterance in print 
was enacted, but a temporary restraint had been placed on 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 37 



p? 



this liberty, in 1812, on account of violent newspaper at- 
tacks upon Russia. The government still made use of this 
restraint, which caused many severe legal sentences and 
subsequent bitterness. 

Among the press organs of that period the "Argus" and 
"Aftonbladet" were the most conspicuous in their attacks 
upon the conservative government ; Lars Hierta, one of the 
ablest of Swedish editorial writers, was the publisher of the 
latter. His paper was repeatedly confiscated. Anders 
Lindeberg was the publisher of "Stockholmsposten." In 
an agitation against the royal monopoly in theatrical affairs, 
Lindeberg threw out the accusation that the king, for 
purely economical reasons, opposed a reform in those mat- 
ters. He was arraigned and a sentence of death passed 
upon him, which was commuted to three years' imprison- 
ment. Bat Lindeberg refused to accept any clemency, 
declaring himself ready and resolved to die The govern- 
ment, who dared not take his life, was in a delicate predica- 
ment, but saved itself and Lindeberg by announcing pardon 
of "political criminals, ?? at the anniversary of the king's first 
arrival in Sweden. Jacob Crusenstolpe, a novelist and 
writer of note, was one of the intimate friends and sup- 
porters of the government, but turned liberal, attacking the 
king in a pamphlet. He was sentenced to three years' 
imprisonment, which created great commotion and a revolt 
in Stockholm, not subdued except after a bloody conflict 
with the troops (July, 1838). Crusenstolpe continued 
writing from his prison. 

The principal leaders of the opposition in the Riksdag 
were L. Boye, F c Bo von Schwerin and C. H Anckarsverd 
among the nobles, and Anders Danielsson among the peas- 
ants. This opposition criticised the government for negli- 



378 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

gence, extravagance and incompetency. Its policy was an 
entire reconstruction of the state, politically, socially and 
financially, on the basis of a constitutional government. 
The opposition commenced by establishing the right of free 
deliberations in the Riksdag. At the Riksdags of 1827 and 
1828 the government was severely taken to task on account 
of the sale of ships to the Spanish insurgents in South 
America. The king was inclined to join England against 
Spain, but had to recede on account of pressure from Russia 
and the continental powers. The sales were partly annulled 
and the Swedish government experienced a considerable 
financial loss. Cederstrom was the responsible party, but 
upon his resignation his able successor Wirsen was able 
to cover up his tracks. 

If Sweden was forced to change her policy in the South 
American affair she was found unyielding in the settlement 
of the boundary questions with Russia. This power was 
anxious to obtain a slice of the Norwegian Finnmark, with 
excellent ioe-free harbors at the bay of Varanger. In the 
ultimate settlement with Russia, in 1826, a great territory 
was ceded, but not any of the important harbors. 

In 1840 the opposition had waxed strong enough to effect 
one of its most desired reforms, the constitutional recon- 
struction of the cabinet. This body was made to consist 
of ten members, of whom seven were to be the heads of the 
various state departments, those of justice, foreign affairs, 
army, navy, civil service, finance and ecclesiastics. 1 As 
a consequence of this change in the constitution, several 
cabinet members resigned and were succeeded by men more 
in touch with the opposition. 

1 The ecclesiastic department is also the department of education. 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 379 

The greatest of contemplated reforms was a new system 
of representation, but the opposition was not able to carry 
it through. At the first revolution of Gustavus III., Sted- 
ingk favored a reconstruction of the Riksdag after the 
model of the English parliament. Gustavus III. was afraid 
to cause complications by the introduction of such a nov- 
elty, but considered it gravely at the time of his second 
revolution. In 1830, the idea was taken up by the opposi- 
tion, and Anckarsverd and the eminent lawyer Richert made 
up a plan for a new Diet, according to the plan of the Nor- 
wegian Storthing. This plan, with the idea of one chamber, 
instead of two, was repeatedly discussed at the Riksdag 
of 1840, but not adopted. This remarkable Riksdag, 
which lasted seventeen months, did considerable for the 
improvement of education and was ultimately dismissed 
by Charles XI "V"., in a speech of a conciliatory spirit, 
which went far toward restoring the old popularity of 
the king. 

Charles XIV. died March 8, 1844, at the age of eighty- 
one. During the last years of his reign he received strong 
and repeated evidence of the love of his people, especially 
upon the occasion of his twenty-fifth anniversary as king 
of Sweden. "No one has made a career like mine," he said 
shortly before his death. He was a child of the revolu- 
tionary epoch, favored by its opportunities to receive a high 
station, without being sullied by any of its vices. If it be 
true that his position often was made difficult through lack 
of appreciation by his new subjects, it is not less true that 
he, through lack of intimacy with the Swedish language, 
national character and traditions, was unable to further the 
development of his new country, in the same degree as 
would a native provided with such rich endowment. The 



380 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

sun of Charles XIV., which rose in brilliancy, set in the 
glory of full appreciation. 

The reign of Charles XIV, produced a new line of emi- 
nent scientists and was the golden age of Swedish litera- 
ture. The remarkable genius of J„ J. Berzelius remolded 
the science of chemistry, placing it on a basis where there 
are hardly any limits to its scope. Elias Fries devised a 
new system of botany. Sven Nilsson, a distinguished zoolo- 
gist, also became the founder of a new science, compara- 
tive archaeology. K. J. Schlyter edited a complete collec- 
tion of the old provincial laws, a work of equal importance 
to philology and jurisprudence. P. H. Ling invented the 
Swedish system of gymnastics and founded the Central 
Institute of Gymnastics in Stockholm, where the Swed- 
ish massage or movement cure has won a scientific de- 
velopment worthy of its world-wide fame. E. G. Geijer, 
as a philosopher, was a noble follower of Hoeijer, while as 
a historian he is the greatest genius of his country. As a 
poet and composer Geijer is also noteworthy. Professor 
of history at Upsala, he was once accused of heterodoxy, 
but acquitted. His political career was remarkable. Geijer 
was a firm supporter of the government and conservative 
principles, until fifty-seven years of age, when he joined the 
opposition. 

The world of letters was divided in parties -as bitterly 
opposed to each other as those of the political world. The 
old Gustavian school, of which Leopold remained the last 
representative, was attacked by the "New School," which, 
inspired by German Romanticism, was brimful of inspira- 
tion, imagination and feelings, but very little that was orig- 
inal, clear or national. Of this so-called "phosphoristic" 
school Atterbom was the distinguished leader. Stagnelius,. a 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 381 

poet of rare attainments, but who died early, belongs in this 
group. The Few School was in turn attacked by the "Gothic 
Society, ' J a school of national Swedish Romanticism, which 
introduced a cult of the Old Northern spirit of individuality, 
terseness and power. Ling and Geijer were among the 
leading men of this school, whose enthusiasm for everything 
national had a lasting influence upon the research for, and 
gathering of, folk lore, songs, traditions, customs, and every 
trait of the popular culture of bygone days, In Franzen 
and Wallin, Sweden had two religious poets of the very 
first rank. More famous than any of these was Esaias 
Tegner, the second great national poet of Sweden, whose 
"Frithiof's Saga" was destined to become the most cele- 
brated literary work of all Europe in its day, appearing in 
a vast number of translations io a great number of lan- 
guages. Tegner was in sympathy with the old Gustavian 
school- but a member of the Gothic Society, and by his 
choice of subjects in harmony with the national school. 
There is a wonderful richness of sparkling life and wit in 
Tegner's poems, but they are sometimes overladen by the 
vivid ornamental images in which they abound. Tegner 
was a man of extremely broad and liberal views on every 
phase of human life and effort. He hated with the whole 
power of his fiery soul the mysticism, obscurantism and 
morbid sensualism of his age. He was the sworn enemy 
of the "Holy Alliance" and the reactionary powers in state, 
church and literature. In his chivalrous spirit and love of 
the great individuals, he became the admirer of Charles 
XI V., whose policy he therefore supported. Tegner is not 
the one who in the grandeur and faultlessness of his crea- 
tions has attained the very highest rank among Swedish 
poets, but is the greatest and most unbiased thinker among 



382 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

them, and has as such exerted a beneficial influence upon 
the national consciousness and cultural development. Teg- 
ner's judgment upon one of his Gustavian precursors may- 
be repeated in his own case: " Perchance the greatest not 
as poet, but as genius." 

Oscar Jo was forty-five years of age at the death of his 
father. He was the only son of Charles XIV. and Queen 
Desideria, the latter a daughter of a French merchant by 
the name of Clary „ Oscar was, in 1823, married to Prin- 
cess Josephine of Leuchtenberg, a granddaughter of the 
French empress of the same name. It was a difficult posi- 
tion, the one held by the heir-apparent. Charles XIV. was 
jealous of his own power and popularity and suspected his 
son of being in sympathy with the opposition The prince, 
distanced as far as possible from the affairs of state, devoted 
himself to the study of social and economic subjectSo He 
gave a great deal of attention to the study of prisons and 
the care of prisoners, seeking by pamphlets to spread his 
sympathies for the latter and to improve their conditionSo 
Oscar L was fondly devoted to the fine arts, himself a 
talented painter and composer. He did not possess his 
father's brilliant genius or power of personal influence 
although an upright man of great talent and exceedingly 
prepossessing in appearance. Oscar was of a mild, saga- 
cious disposition, who liked to go into detail and take 
time for investigation and decision. He was not a man 
of action, and lacked somewhat consistency in carrying 
out plans of a wider scope Oscar I. had a little of the 
autocrat of the father in him and often acted on his own 
judgment, without taking the advice of his cabinet. Being 
the loyal, highly cultured and patriotic man that he was, 
he in various ways furthered the development of his country. 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 383 

Few kings have ascended a throne under such enthu- 
siasm and joyful aspirations on the part of the people as 
King Oscar I. Several important reforms were enacted 
at the Riksdag which met in 1844, and the king gave his 
sanction to them all. It was decided that the Riksdag 
should meet every third instead of every fifth year, the lib- 
erty of the press was augmented, and to women were given 
equal rights in the stipulations of inheritance and marriage. 
The last-mentioned reform was bitterly opposed by the 
nobles, who feared it would, to a great extent, annul their 
privileges. The law was passed by the three lower Estates, 
in spite of the nobles, and was sanctioned by the king, 
Oscar I. took great pains to have the industries freed from 
the restraint under which they had been suffering during 
the reign of his predecessor. 

King Oscar surrounded himself with men of a more 
modern type than his father's advisers. They were in 
touch with the principles of the opposition, although far 
from radical, and more respected for their character than 
for their ability. The opposition, which had been so harsh 
during the administration of Charles XIV., was toned 
down considerably; but complaints were soon heard that 
the new government was neither consistent nor resolute 
in its liberal policy and that courtiers and young officers 
won an unduly rapid promotion. Soon an opposition of a 
new order was organized against the administration. The 
conservatives, finding that it leaned too much on the lib- 
eral principles, attacked it for this reason. A powerful 
conservative party at the Riksdag was organized, with 
Hartmansdorff as the leader among the nobles and Arch- 
bishop Wingard among the clergy. Attacked by liberals 
and conservatives alike, and not supported by either, 



384 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

the government was of an undecided and vacillating 
tenor* 

The French revolution of 1848 influenced Swedish poli- 
tics in several ways. The "friends of reform," viz., the 
party desiring a parliamentary reorganization, were incited 
by the republican tendencies. The masses of Stockholm 
on one occasion gave vent to their feelings by demonstra- 
tions which were of a menacing character,, Great crowds 
collected outside the place where a "reform banquet" was 
held. There it was resolved to attack the houses of Hart- 
mansdorff and several other leading conservatives. The 
owners placed themselves in safety, but the windows of the 
houses were broken by the mob, who also threw stones at 
the troops. The tumult was quenched, but not without 
bloodshed. The press was greatly agitated for a long time 
afterward, using language against the government that was 
by no means choice. The liberals in the Riksdag com- 
menced to take an attitude as decided as the one held by 
the conservatives. From this time on King Oscar showed 
great coldness to the liberals, and surrounded himself with 
advisers more in harmony with the conservatives. 

The proposition for a reorganization of the Riksdag, made 
in 1840, was not accepted, but a committee was appointed 
in 1848 to make a new proposition, which failed to please 
either government or Riksdag. The king then had a 
new proposition prepared, based upon general elections. 
The liberals did not think the royal proposition democratic 
enough and offered one of their own. Both of these were 
defeated at the Riksdag of 1850, thanks to the opposition 
of nobility and clergy. A third one was made by Hart- 
mansdorff, but also failed to please, not being conservative 
enough for the nobles. Hartmansdorff aroused so much 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 385 

hatred among his fellow nobles that they refused to be 
seated on the same bench with him during the sessions. 
After a period of perfect isolation the old conservative leader 
was judged with greater leniency by his former followers. 
Shortly before his death, in 1856, he sent them the following 
greeting: "Ask the nobles not to stand up so long for their 
privileges, they will lose nothing by surrendering them." 
It seemed as if the interest for parliamentary reform had 
died out during the latter part of King Oscar's reign, but 
such was not the case; it only gathered force in the quiet, 
and the king was right when defining it as a "question 
which could never fall." 

The influence of the revolution of 1848 also was felt in 
the foreign relations of Sweden. The German population of 
Holstein and Schleswig tried to sever their connections with 
Denmark in order to effect a union with Germany, Prussia 
taking upon herself to liberate said provinces. Denmark 
made various efforts to gain the active support of Sweden. 
The so-called "Scandinavism" was a good means to obtain 
this end. This movement, which aimed at the establishment 
of a closer union between the three Scandinavian countries, 
based upon the fact of the common origin of their inhabi- 
tants, had originated at the University of Copenhagen. The 
meetings of scientists and students, in 1842 and 1843, at 
Stockholm, had given growth to this movement, which was 
of a very high-strung nature, but, as far as the Danes were 
concerned, also of an egotistical motive. Charles XIV. had 
been averse to this "students' policy," but Oscar I. was 
sympathetically impressed by it. "Scandinavism" rose 
high in 1848, especially at the universities, and King Oscar 
sent a communication to the Prussian government to the 

effect that he was resolved to oppose any attack on the 

XX 17 



386 . HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

Danish isles. An army of 20,000 men was ordered to 
Scania to give weight to this statement. A smaller division 
of it was even for a time quartered in the island of Funen. 
The German troops which had invaded Jutland soon retired 
and hostilities ceased for some time. King Oscar effected 
an armistice of seven months^ in August, 1848. As a result 
of the war between Denmark and Germany during the next 
few years an agreement followed, according to which Hol- 
stein and Schleswig would for some time remain under 
Danish supremacyc 

King Oscar had, from the commencement of his reign, 
tried to meet all demands for reform made by his Norwe- 
gian subjects, who were anxious to demonstrate to the 
world the perfect independence of their country. The king 
himself took the initiative steps to give Norway a national 
flag of its own, the two countries up to the reign of Oscar 
having had one common official flag. He also instituted the 
Norwegian knightly order of St. Olaf in resemblance to 
the older Swedish orders of Seraphim, Vasa, etc., and gave 
permission to place the name of Norway before that of Swe- 
den in the Norwegian royal title. For these reasons public 
opinion in Sweden expected Norwegian concessions in re- 
gard to the Act of Union, which seemed in need of revision. 
A committee of men from both countries was appointed to 
make the revision, but the Norwegian members opposed all 
measures involving any change, expressing themselves in 
such emphatic terms that it was found best to leave the 
deliberations of the committee unpublished. In 1854 the 
Norwegian Storthing decided to abolish the office of a gov- 
ernor-general. King Oscar refused to sanction this law, 
but allowed the office to remain vacant during the rest of 
his reign. 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 387 

Intemperance had grown to be an evil from which the 
Swedish people greatly suffered since the reign of Gustavus 
III., when alcohol began to be produced in great quantities 
by the common people. The king encouraged the temper- 
ance movement, which was very fruitful in results. In 1853 
the Riksdag abolished the free and unrestrained production 
of alcohol, which was changed into a regular industry and 
placed under heavy taxation. From 1855 onward, the prin- 
ciples of free trade were adopted for commerce and trade 
through the influence of J. A. Gripenstedt, the minister of 
finance, and seemed to have beneficial results in every 
branch of industrial and commercial activity. The state 
revenues were greatly increased and the surplus spent in 
improvements of the widest scope. The means of interior 
communications were vastly improved. In 1853 the net- 
work of the state electric telegraph began to spread and 
now embraces every part of the country. The agitation 
for the construction of railways had long been an active 
one. The first one constructed was a private railway be- 
tween CErebro and Arboga. In 1854 the Riksdag decided 
on the construction of trunk lines in Southern Sweden, to be 
built and controlled by the state. The Riksdag of 1856 
appropriated a sum of $5,000,000 for that purpose. The 
railways were rapidly and solidly built under the supervis- 
ion of Baron Nils Ericsson, the highly talented brother of 
John Ericsson, the world-famous inventor of the propeller, 
the caloric engine, the steam hose and the "Monitor, ' : 

The relations with Russia were not the best during the 
latter part of King Oscar's reign, The Russian claims on 
the harbors at the bay of Varanger were repeated in 1847, 
and when deliberations for a settlement were opened, in 
1851, Russia showed a tendency to take possession of the 



388 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

desired places. In the conflict between Russia, on one hand, 
and Turkey, supported by England and France, on the 
other, Sweden sided with the latter D especially after Russia 
had failed to recognize an alliance of neutrality under arms 
formed by Sweden- Norway and Denmark. In 1855 Sweden 
entered an agreement with France, promising not to cede 
any territory to Russia in case of a conflict. In 1856 peace 
was made at Paris; the only favor won by Sweden was 
a pledge made by Russia not to fortify the archipelago of 
Aland. 

King Oscar was a very hard worker and also fond of the 
pleasures of life. His health was injured through illness, 
in 1857, and he never recovered. The premature death of 
his second son, Prince Gustavus, a talented composer and 
highly popular , had a disastrous influence on him. King 
Oscar I. died July 8, 1859, after a long illness, beloved by 
the two nations who, during his reign, had enjoyed the 
happiest epoch of their history. 

Romanticism in literature had an important second blos- 
som during the reign of King Oscar I. and his successor. 
With the exception of Runeberg and Almquist 5 it offers no 
name of the very first rank. But Runeberg, the Homer 
of the North, does not belong to Sweden alone, and Alm- 
quist, the only great Romanticist, had made his appearance 
during the preceding epoch. Charles John Ludvig Alm- 
quist was a genius of great versatility and exceptional en- 
dowment. He wrote with equal force in all branches of 
literature; besides the poet, dramatist and prosaist, being 
a good philologist and well versed in a number of practical 
pursuits. He anticipated the ideas of which George Sand 
became a champion, and wrote charming peasant idyls long 
before Auerbach and Bjcernson. His most important work 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 389 

is an ambiguous creation, conceived somewhat in the form 
of Boccaccio's "Decamerone, " but much larger, and contain- 
ing productions in every imaginable artistic form. It is 
called Toernrosens bok (The Book of the Wild Rose). 
Almquist has not, like Bellman and Tegner s crystallized 
the Swedish national character in a lyrical form, but he 
remains, in spite of glaring defects, the most versatile and 
supremely gifted genius of Swedish literature. 

ITybom, Bcettiger, Malmstroem, Saetherberg and Strand- 
berg were talented lyric poets of this epoch, Von Braun, 
Sturzen-Becker and Sehlstedt good humorists, while Bcer- 
jesson, Blanche, John, Dahlgren and Frans Hedberg wrote 
successfully for the stage. Swedish women were destined 
to win fame for themselves by bringing the novelistic form 
to a richer development; principal among whom were Fred- 
erica Bremer, Sophie von Knorring, Emilie Carlen and 
Sophie Schwartz, while the men Crusenstolpe, Sparre, Mel- 
lin, Ridderstad and Starbseck cultivated the field of his- 
torical fiction, for which Swedish history offers such a 
wealth of appropriate subjects. 

Swedish composers of note were becoming numerous, 
although the field in which they chiefly excel is the 
rather limited one of lyric song, the most spontaneous 
medium of expression for the lyrico-rhetoric Swedish tem- 
perament. As the composer of "lieder" or visor, Adolphus 
Lindblad, an intimate friend of Mendelssohn, occupies a 
revered place in the history of music» Close to him stand 
Crusell, ETordblom and Josephsson, while Haeffner, Otto 
Lindblad, one of the noblest composers in this line, Prince 
Gustavus and Yennerberg are famous principally for their 
part songs. 

The cultivators of dramatic and orchestral composition 



390 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

have as yet been comparatively few. Chief among them 
is Bervald; further, Norman and Hallstrcem. In a later 
contemporary epoch, Hallen, Aulin, Sjcegren, Stenhammar 
have considerably brightened this aspect of cultural develop- 
ment, Gunnar Vennerberg occupies an honored place as 
a poet, humorist and composer in one. There seems to be a 
deeply rooted tendency in the Swedish national tempera- 
ment to unite the various branches of artistic creation, which 
would stamp it as romantic in its very essence if there did 
not run a vein of stunningly realistic portrayals through the 
works of such composite nature. In the art of Bellman this 
tendency has found its highest exponent. Bellman selected 
for his subjects the life of the lower middle classes in the 
Swedish capital of his day. His Fredman sings of the ex- 
periences of himself and his friends, Vennerberg has 
chosen the student's life at the University of Upsala as the 
subject of his duets between two students, st Gluntarne," in 
which are mirrored as faithfully, and sometimes as artisti- 
cally, as by Bellman the humorous and pathetic scenes which 
have fascinated the poet and composer, 

Swedish song for the first time acquired universal fame 
through Jenny Lind, who has had many successors, but no 
peer as a dramatic singer. Contemporaneous with Jenoy 
Lind were a number of highly talented histrionic artists, 
principal among whom were Lars Hjortsberg, Nils William 
Almlcef, Olof Ulric Torsslov, Emilie Hoegquist and Carl 
Georg Dahlquist. The Swedish stage has set a good ex- 
ample for the preservation of the highest standards of the 
language, and in this line exerted a great cultural influence. 




CHAPTER XVII 

Parliamentary Reform — Charles XV 

HARLES XV., the eldest son of Oscar L, sue 
ceeded his father, having for two years presided 
over the government during king Oscar's last ill- 
ness. King Charles was of gigantic stature, exceedingly 
handsome and of a manly and noble bearing. There dwelt 
a fiery soul within him, conscious of its power, longing for 
heroic deeds and in sympathy with all that was noble in life 
and art. The king possessed an abundance of youthful 
energy and vivacity. He was a passionate hunter and a 
gay companion, who surrounded himself with men equally 
boisterous and gay. He was fond of jokes and merry pas- 
times, and took no pains to hide his weaknesses, which were 
of a convivial nature. In his social intercourse the king 
was exceptionally open and frank, treating everybody alike 
in a good-natured, hearty manner, winning the whole heart 
of his people. He understood better than any king since 
Charles XI. how to put himself in cordial relation with the 
masses of the people. But fond of playing practical jokes 
on high and low, he did not like to receive in the 
same measure. Charles XY. was devoted to the pursuits 
of art. Especially in his youth, he wrote poetry and dis- 
tinguished himself as a landscape painter through his love 

for typical Swedish sceneries. Sweden did not at first know 

(391) 



392 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

what to expect of her new ruler, and no one was able to pre- 
diet the course of his policy. There were fears that his 
youthfulness and his fiery southern temperament might lead 
him to feel satisfied with the exterior of things or that he 
might give way to the impulses of the moment; These 
fears soon proved to be without foundation. The king had 
chosen as his maxim "Land shall with law be built,' 5 from 
the old provincial law of Upland, and he remained, with 
very rare exceptions, true to the constitutional spirit of 
these words. He had the good fortune to find highly 
capable advisers, in whose hands he placed the details 
of the administration, and, in contrast to his father, was 
satisfied to give his attention exclusively to matters of a 
more general importance. He gave his unreserved support 
to his cabinet, occupying a position above all party interests. 
Charles XV„ often sacrificed, sometimes only after consider- 
able internal struggle, his own personal sympathies and 
inclinations at the request of the advisers when he saw that 
the welfare of his country and his own royal dignity de- 
manded such a sacrifice. On account of this, his true con- 
stitutional spirit, he deserved as a ruler the blind adoration 
of his people. His summer residence, the castle of Ulrics- 
dal, in the neighborhood of Stockholm, he changed into 
an artistic abode, with choice collections in various lines. 
Charles XV, had, in 1850, married Princess Louise of the 
Netherlands, of the royal house of Orange, Their daugh- 
ter, Louise, was married to the crown prince of Denmark, 
and is still in life, while King Charles had to suffer the 
premature losses of his only son and of his consort 

The cabinet which surrounded Charles XVo was one 
of the strongest bodies of its kind that ever controlled the 
government of Sweden. During his regency, Crown Prince 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 393 

Charles appointed Baron Louis de Geer minister of justice 
and Ludvig Manderstrcem minister of foreign aff airs» These 
men continued their duties during the reign of Charles XV. „ 
while Gripenstedt, as minister of finance, followed up his 
beneficent activity for the emancipation and development of 
the national industries. The historian, Frederic Ferdinand 
Carlson, had been the teacher of King Charles and had 
successfully continued the monumental work of Swedish 
history, left unfinished by Geijer. Carlson occupied, dur- 
ing the greater part of the reign of Charles XV., the posi- 
tion of minister of ecclesiastics (church and education), in 
which capacity he did great work for the improvement 
of educational affairs. . The high schools and colleges were 
reorganized through new regulations of 1859, being the 
work of Carlson before his appointment to the cabinet. 
Carlson also improved the public, or common, schools. 
King Charles was a warm friend of public instruction. In 
one of his speeches from the throne he said: "This is my 
ambition that a true and living culture shall penetrate our 
people and with its blessings reach the humblest of its 
cottages." 

The relations between Sweden and Norway, during the 
first few years of the reign of Charles XV., were strained. 
The Norwegian Storthing once more voted the abolition of 
the office of a governor-general. It was thought that the 
king, who earlier, as viceroy of Norway, had spoken in a 
spirit of acquiescence upon this question, would sanction the 
vote of the Storthing. But in Sweden great indignation was 
felt. It was known and understood that the Act of Union 
contained nothing in regard to the office in question, but 
was created by a stipulation in the constitution of Norway 
which admitted the possibility of its being filled by a Swede. 



394 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

The Norwegian view was that the Storthing had exclusive 
right to decide the question ? while the Swedish view was 
tha^ it was a question concerning the Union and to be de- 
cided on by the diets of the two countries. Practically the 
Swedes were right; theoretically, and from a purely patri* 
otic standpoint, which considered necessary the develop* 
ment of a perfect national independence even at the expense 
of the Union, the Norwegians were right, Ankarsverd, 
well known since the days of Charles XIV, ? made a motion, 
at the Swedish Riksdag of 1859, for the revision of the Act 
of Union on the basis of the treaty of Kiel, which motion 
in Norway was accepted as an insult, V. F, Dalman made 
a motion that the Estates should ask the king not to render 
a decision in the question of a Norwegian governor-general 
before the Riksdag had had an opportunity to look into the 
international aspect of the question Great was the com- 
motion caused by this issue, both in the diets and the press 
of the two countries, Swedish pamphlets were circulated 
which accepted the possibility of a dissolution of the Union, 
But in Norway, where the security of a union with Sweden 
had become apparent, especially during the conflict with 
Russia^ such utterances were repudiated. Both of the mo- 
tions in question were passed by the four Estates of the 
Riksdag, but put in such a shape that a request to have 
a revision of the Act of Union made was sent up to the king, 
with the demand for a royal proposition on that issue. The 
king was then asked to consider the question of a Norwe- 
gian governor-general in connection with that revision. As 
there was a difference of opinion also in the cabinets of the 
two countries, the final decision rested with the king alone. 
The sagacity and discernment of which King Charles gave 
evidence saved the situation and is worthy of praise. He 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 395 

declared in the Norwegian cabinet that he could not sane- 
tion the abolition of the office of a governor-general 
Shortly afterward, he gave in the Swedish cabinet as his 
opinion the advisability of postponing, for the time being, 
all deliberations of a revision of the Act of Union, By 
doing so, the king quieted the high feelings in both coun- 
tries, and peace returned. It had become apparent to both 
Swedes and Norwegians that the Union was the result of 
great political foresight because it was preserved through 
the increasing feeling of faith and of the necessity of mu- 
tual protection. That great obscurity existed in regard to 
the affairs regulating the Union had also become evident. 
The reforms and improvements which were effected 
during the reign of Charles XV. were highly important. 
New criminal and maritime codes were made at the Riks- 
dag of 1862, and sanctioned by the government. Through 
the new regulations passed in the same year the foundations 
for increased municipal home rule were laid. Such home 
rule was as old as the country itself, but, in the same degree 
as the state organization, had attained a higher develop- 
ment, and the centralization of the administration was real- 
ized; it had weakened and was in peril of being entirely 
lost. Now the time was come for the powers of state to 
give municipal home rule new strength, adapting its old 
forms and creating new ones, in accordance with modern 
requirements* Laws were made which gave the towns the 
right to elect members to local assemblies (stadsfullmceg- 
tige), with authority to act in behalf of their communitieSo 
Similar institutions (kommunalstcemmor) were arranged for 
the country communities. Landsting were instituted in 
every governmental district, or Icen, at which representa- 
tives, elected by the people, were to take action on the pub- 



39(5 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

lie affairs of the district, especially on such tha£ pertamed 
to sanitary conditions, communications, etc* The condi- 
tions for suffrage and elective franchise in municipal affairs 
were based on personal income. The old class distinctions 
were thus disregarded and a return made to the still older 
democratic institutions of the ancient Teutonic communities, 
in which every free man is entitled to his word and vote in 
public affairSo But those only are considered "free" who 
by their work can gain enough to pay their taxes in return 
for the privileges of a citizen. The church got a representa- 
tion of its own in the clerical assembly (kyrkomoetet), which 
meets every fifth year and consists of equal numbers of min- 
isters and laymen. 

The government in the municipal reforms found a basis 
for the reorganization of the Riksdag. The royal proposi- 
tion for a new parliamentary representation, placed before 
the Estates in 1862, was built upon the municipal suffrage 
and the Landstings or district assemblies, the latter being 
authorized to elect the members of the senate, or First 
Chamber, The old system of representation corresponded 
as little with the new municipal home rule as with the gen- 
eral tendencies in politics and social life. The nobility had 
lost its old importance. It was no longer advisable for the 
clergy to take a leading part in political affairSo A new 
industrial class of wealth and prominence had formed and 
demanded a representation in the burgher class. The peas- 
ants had ever since 1809 been carrying on their agitation for 
a reduction of taxes and abolition of the class privilegeSo 
They had met with an overwhelming opposition which 
would fall with the old system of representation A par- 
liamentary reform had been fervently discussed ever since 
1840. The municipal home rule reforms of 1862 had 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 397 

brought the question closer to a solution. The burghers 
and peasants at the Riksdag of 1860 petitioned the govern- 
ment to present a royal proposition for the reorganization 
of the Diet. Baron Louis de Geer, the minister of justice, 
was the author of this proposition, which was presented in 
1862 and placed on the table until the next Riksdag. The 
great question was acted upon at the Riksdag of 1865. 
There was a great deal of commotion on account of the 
opposition which was expected from the nobility and clergy. 
The discussions in the periodical press and in pamphlet form 
were lively. The country population preserved its peaceful 
and sensible demeanor, but the excitement in the towns was 
considerable and increased as the decision drew nearer. 
The majority of towns and several rural communities in 
their close proximity sent deputations to Stockholm, who 
tendered their best wishes to the able minister of jus- 
tice for the success of his proposition. The commotion 
in Stockholm was so great that troops were ordered 
ready in case of an emergency. The 4th of Decem- 
ber the proposition was voted on by the burghers and 
peasants. At the question of the speaker, whether they 
were willing to accept the royal proposition, the peasants 
rose to their feet in a body and gave their answer with one 
laconic yea. A few of the burghers spoke against the prop- 
osition, but it was carried also in their Estate, and by an 
overwhelming majority. Long and heated discussions took 
place among the nobility and clergy. The clergymen were 
generally opposed to the parliamentary reform, but feared 
to be found remaining as the only opponents in the storm of 
disapproval which would follow. For this reason they post- 
poned their decision until the nobility had taken action upon 
the proposition. 



398 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

There rested a spirit of real grandeur over the delibera- 
tions at the Riddarhus upon this occasion, when the question 
of a voluntary surrender of the aristocratic privileges was 
to be decided. The Swedish nobility had its class instincts 
and prejudices, but very rarely it had been found lacking in 
men of the loftiest patriotism and highest attainments, ever 
ready to take the lead in the defence of the independence 
of their country or to follow up faithfully the ambitions of 
their great rulers. Arrangements had been made to allow 
noblemen from distant parts and of very limited means to 
be present, if not during the time of the discussions, which 
lasted four days, at least at the casting of the vote. Never 
in the memorable history of the knightly chapterhouse had 
more eloquent language or loftier thoughts been heard than 
upon this occasion. Both supporters and opponents of the 
royal proposition spoke with great sagacity and discernment. 
The former spoke of the inadvisability of a representation 
by Estates and by hereditary privileges, and of the dangers 
of a further postponement of the needed reform. The latter 
nicely scrutinized the royal proposition, which was consid- 
ered to give too great influence to the peasants, to weaken 
the executive power and to depend upon municipal reforms 
as yet untried. They further considered the upper house, 
or First Chamber, too homogeneous with the Second to be 
able to exert the conservative or retaining power expected 
from it. The members of the cabinet all spoke with fervor 
and persuasive power in favor of the royal proposition, 
especially De Geer, Gripenstedt and Carlson. The outcome 
was that the royal proposition was accepted by a vote of 361 
yeas against 294 nays. The nobility as a class thus left the 
politick arena voluntarily and with honor. Now the tarn 
was come to the clergy, who unanimously accepted the roval 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 399 

proposition without further discussion. The result was 
accepted with outbursts of enthusiasm from all over the 
country, but especially from the towns. The four Estates 
adjourned June 22, 1866, forever, and the law of the new 
system of parliamentary representation was sanctioned the 
same date. 

The royal proposition, which became the law of a new 
Diet, is based upon the principle of general elections. The 
Riksdag meets at the commencement of every year. It is 
divided into two houses or Chambers. The members of the 
First Chamber, or upper house, are elected for a term of 
nine years, partly by the Landstings, or district assemblies, 
partly by the assemblies of towns which do not take part 
in a Landsting. Elective to the First Chamber are those 
who have a yearly income of at least $1,000 from some 
business or enterprise, or as the interest on a capital of their 
own. These members, or senators, must be at least thirty- 
five years of age; they do not enjoy any compensation. 
The members of the Second Chamber, or lower house, are 
elected by every judicial district in the country which has 
no more than 40,000 inhabitants and by every 10,000 in- 
habitants of a town. Towns which have a population of 
less than 10,000 inhabitants are joined into election districts 
of from 6,000 to 12,000 inhabitants. Elective to the Second 
Chamber are those who pay taxes on an income of at least 
$200 a year and who are twenty-five years of age. These 
members are compensated for the time spent at the Riks- 
dag. The ordinary Riksdag, which meets every year, lasts 
for a period of at least four months. The extraordinary 
Riksdag is called by the king whenever he finds it neces- 
sary. The members of the cabinet are elective as members 
of the Riksdag, and should, during all sessions, be present 



400 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

at the deliberations of the Chambers. The standing com- 
mittees remain the same as during the time of the old sys- 
tem. Special and temporary committees are appointed 
when considered necessary. When the two Chambers end 
in a conflicting vote upon one and the same subject, the 
committee which prepared it for discussion should try to 
obtain a satisfactory solution. If such fails, the question 
is dropped for that year. The expenses of state, the state 
appropriations and the management of the national bank, 
when involved, form exceptions to this rule and are voted 
upon by both Chambers together, the majority of votes 
from both making the decision. 

A new era in Swedish history opens up with the accept- 
ance of the parliamentary reform. The constitution itself 
had suffered no change, except in points of contact with the 
new rules of the Riksdag. But the powers of state no 
longer held to each other the same position as of yore. The 
government hitherto had, in the very division into four 
Estates, a support against powerful class and party in- 
terests. An equally solid support was not to be expected 
from a Riksdag of only two Chambers, which in questions 
of state appropriations is practically one. For this reason 
many would have preferred the establishment of a system 
which, instead of abolishing the mediaeval arrangement of 
four Estates, would have added as many classes as there 
are really extant in the modern state, to gain the desired 

# 

equilibrium through a manifold and dynamically operating 
representation. As things shaped themselves after the two 
Chamber system, the government ought more than ever 
to have a conservative, retaining power in order to preserve 
the proper balance. But such was not the case, for the 
Riksdag had been placed in a position to watch and control 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 401 

£he executive power much closer than before, thanks to its 
authority to fix for each year the appropriations and ex- 
penditures of the state. The stipulation that the members 
of the cabinet are to take part in the deliberations of the 
Chambers gives another pillar of strength to the Riksdag. 
If the ministers of state are to exert any influence upon the 
decisions of the Riksdag, it is requisite to have its full con- 
fidence. The kiog is forced to select for his cabinet such 
members as are supposed to have an influence with the 
representatives of the people. The influence of the Riksdag 
has been steadily increasing ever since 1867. 

While the issue of a parliamentary reform occupied the 
attention of all public-spirited men, the interest in the polit- 
ical situation of Europe was hardly less intense., The sym- 
pathy with the unhappy Poles was almost feverish. In 
1863 two motions were made at the Riksdag to petition the 
government to take an active part in the restoration of the 
kingdom of Poland, by means of diplomatic intervention. 
The position of the government was a difficult one. The 
complications between Denmark and Germany had recom- 
menced, and it was important to stand in good relations to 
Russia. The Swedish public did everything to make these 
relations precarious, by demonstrations of various kinds in 
favor of Poland, warlike newspaper articles and subscrip- 
tions of money to the leaders of the revolt. Thanks to the 
sagacity and tactful demeanor of Manderstroem and the 
common sense of the Riksdag the motions in question were 
defeated and a dangerous conflict avoided. Complications 
of a more serious nature arose on account of the reopened 
conflict between Denmark and Germany. The Danish gov- 
ernment had failed in its efforts to make a satisfactory 
arrangement in the relations between the crown and the 



402 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. The Germans repeatedly 
mixed themselves up in the interior affairs of Denmark, and 
the Danes themselves were divided into several parties. 
King Frederic VII. at last concluded to give up the idea 
of gathering in the duchies as integral parts of the kingdom, 
satisfied to sacrifice the ultimate connection of Holstein and 
Lauenburg with the crown, but resolved to connect the 
originally Danish Schleswig with Denmark. The purely 
German parts were, through the so-called " March Patent" of 
1863, separated from the rest of the monarchy, while Schles- 
wig was reunited with it, according to the constitution. This 
policy was approved by the Scandinavian party in Sweden 
and Norway, supported by Swedish diplomacy, and, in the 
first place, by Charles XV. himself. King Charles was 
inspired by general sympathy with the Scandinavian move- 
ment and by personal friendship for Frederic VII. to follow 
up the Scandinavian policy of his father. The two Scan- 
dinavian monarchs met twice during the summer of 1863 
and influenced the Swedish-Norwegian and Danish cabinets 
to draw the outline of a treaty of defence on the basis of the 
river Eider as the Danish boundary to the south. The Dan- 
ish government made the proposition for a new constitution 
according to which Schleswig was to be united to Denmark. 
This was contrary to the promise made by King Frederic 
to the German powers in 1852. The proposition for a new 
constitution was placed before the Danish Diet and accepted» 
Two days later, November 15, 1863, King Frederic suddenly 
died, before he had sanctioned the new law. This was a 
severe blow. The popular king left his beloved people in a 
most inopportune moment, fraught with peril and disastrous 
mistakes. The people of Schleswig and Holstein renewed 
an old contention in regard to the right of succession. The 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 403 

Hew Danish king, Christian IX., gave in to the pressure 
brought to bear on him by his cabinet and the inhabitants 
of Copenhagen. He signed the new constitution, which 
gave to the German powers a valid excuse to interfere. 
The Prussian and Austrian troops crossed the river Eider to 
make good the agreements of 1852. 

The Swedish-Norwegian government was placed in an 
embarrassing position. The alliance of defence that was 
planned was to a great extent based upon the relations of 
personal friendship between Charles XV, and Frederic VI I. 
Sweden was not legally pledged to shield Denmark as a 
consequence of the acceptance of the new constitution. But 
Sweden had taken a conspicuous part in the deliberations, 
for which reason a change of policy could not be made with- 
out considerable difficulty The liberal organs of the Swed- 
ish press, headed by "Aftonbladet," whose editor was 
August Sohlman, did everything in their power to make 
such a change an impossibility. But Sweden was not pre- 
pared to make war on two of the great powers of Europe, 
especially as no other power was willing to join in an alli- 
ance in behalf of Denmark. The change must be made; and 
was effected, principally because of the persuasive arguments 
and resolute demeanor of Gripenstedt. King Charles re- 
solved to take the painful measures of a retreat. The 
standpoint of his government he gave to the Riksdag in the 
following words: "It cannot be expected from us that we 
should place our sword on the scale of justice without con- 
sidering if the object can be attained with the resources at 
our command." It was a supreme sacrifice that Charles 
XV. made when, for the safety of his countries, he was 
forced to draw back the hand of support and comradeship 
which he had offered a brother in distress. The noble- 



104 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

hearted king s In one of his poems, has given a touching 

expression of the sorrow he felt in being unable to assist 
Denmark in her hour of peril. King Charles might, with 
proper resources at his command, have proved a formidable 
enemy. He had given evidence of possessing all the quali- 
ties requisite for the make-up of a great general, without 
doubt an inheritance from his two grandfathers, Prince 
Bernadotte and Eugene Beauharnais. A few hundred 
Swedish and Norwegian volunteers took an honorable part 
in the Danish war, which was the only practical result of 
the Scandinavian policy. The Swedish press was violent 
in its attacks upon the government for its change of policy. 
In Marchj 1864, the mob of Stockholm assailed the resi- 
dences of Manderstrcem, Gripenstedt and other cabinet 
members, breaking the windows with stones. 

Poor Denmark was left alone., Napoleon IIL made the 
mistake of not attempting to defeat Prussia before she had 
reached her climax of strength. He was tied up with his 
Mexican adventure and unwilling to help Denmark, 
Charles XV could not endure to see Denmark thus de= 
serted. Privately he offered Christian IX, an alliance 
which stipulated that the three Scandinavian kingdoms 
should be joined into a union with one common foreign 
policy and common defence. Charles was also willing to 
make the succession one, if necessary. This alliance was to 
embrace only such parts of Denmark which were not to 
enter the German union. Sweden- For way would do their 
utmost to prohibit a separation between Denmark and 
Schleswig. Denmark refused to accept this offer. Her lead- 
ing statesman, Monrad, held stubbornly to the idea of an un- 
divided Danish monarchy. For this reason, Denmark was 
for a second time abandoned to fight out alone her uneven 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 405 

oattle. It ended in the loss of Holstein, Lauenburg and the 
greater part of Schleswig, through the treaty of Vienna, 
October 30, 1864. In Denmark a hard feeling against the 
Swedes and Norwegians sprang up as a consequence of 
the disastrous war fought without allies; and the Scan- 
dinavian policy and enthusiasm had received a blow from 
which they have never fully recovered, CCharles XV, did all 
in his power to revive them. He had the pleasure of uniting 
the efforts of Sweden, Norway and Denmark in a peaceful 
work of great significance, the first Scandinavian Exposi- 
tion of Industry and Art, which was opened at Stockholm 
in June, 1866. The consequence was a perfect Norwegian 
conquest of Sweden, in a cultured sense The painters 
Tidemand and Gude captured the prizes. The composers 
Kierulf and Nordraak took the lead in song and music 
Ibsen and Bjornson became the craze in literature, The 
literary contact with Norway was begun in 186 l s when 
Lorenz Dietriechson was appointed a docent at the Uni- 
versity of Upsala, and for the first time made the contem- 
porary Norwegian and Danish poets acquainted in Sweden, 
What Sweden received from Norway was a quaintj late- 
born Romanticism of a strong national flavor. When this 
Romanticism was changed into stern Realism its influence 
upon Swedish culture, especially her literature, was only 
increased, Swedish literature receiving strong realistic im- 
pulses from the neighboring Scandinavian countries. The 
Norwegian influence ceased, when the Swedes at last be- 
came aware that there was in it a deeply pessimistic trait, 
akin to the stern Norwegian and Scotch Christianity, which 
is incompatible with the Swedish national temperament, 
slightly inclined to melancholy, but of a robust and irrepres- 
sible desire to live and enjoy. 



£06 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

Charles XV. followed up his practical Scandinavian 
policy by marrying his only daughter Louise to Crown 
Prince Frederic of Denmark. King Charles was as unsuc- 
cessful in his noble efforts to unite more closely his two 
kingdoms as in his foreign policy. The king allowed some 
time to pass in order to let the ill-feeling, caused by the con- 
flict of 1859 and 1860, die out. In February, 1865, he 
considered that the moment had arrived to institute the 
review of the Act of Union. He appointed a committee 
of Swedes and Norwegians to prepare the proposition of a 
new Act of Union, on the basis of perfect equality and 
right to decide separately all matters, except such pertain- 
ing to the Union. The committee performed the work, but 
their proposition was defeated at the Norwegian Storthing of 
1871, at the instigation of John Sverdrup and K. Motzfeldt. 
The Swedish Eiksdag for this reason also failed to accept 
it. At the close of the Riksdag, King Charles made the 
following utterance in regard to the defeated proposition: 
54 What has * now failed to attain success shall perhaps win 
out without difficulty when the two nations once have 
learned to place confidence in each other, as the result of a 
more intimate intercoursec ' ' He saw with great satisfac- 
tion the completion of a railway which forever unites the 
Swedish and the Norwegian capitals with ties of steeL 

The administration of Charles XV. persevered in its 
liberal policy concerning questions of economy and juris- 
prudence. This was particularly noticeable in commercial 
matters. The idea of free trade had won ascendency in 
Europe. Napoleon III. had entered a treaty of commerce 
with England, in strict opposition to the protective system. 
Other nations were one by one admitted into the free-trade 
system by means of new treaties. Sweden made a treaty 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 407 

of commerce and navigation in 1865, This step was se- 
verely criticised by the Riksdag of 1865-1866, both from 
a constitutional and financial point of view, Gripenstedt 
was accused of leading the way over demolished industries, 
but he defended his position with great eloquence. The 
treaty was ratified in spite of the powerful opposition in the 
Riksdag, The press condemned both the treaty and the 
government in the most violent language. 

The first Riksdag of the new parliamentary system met 
January 19, 1867. The "Landstings" had sent to the 
First Chamber the most prominent men of the country. It 
was a truly representative gathering, a house of peers 
elected by the people, Lagerbielke, the landtmarshal of the 
preceding Riksdag, was appointed speaker. The Second 
Chamber counted a larger number of peasants as repre- 
sentatives than of any other class, Anton Nicolaus Sund- 
berg, then bishop of Carlstad, now archbishop of Sweden, 
was made speaker of the Second Chamber. The power of 
the peasants made itself felt at once. There was formed 
a strong and influential party, the landtmanna, or country- 
men's party, consisting of small landowners. The peas- 
ants constituted the majority, but the party also counted 
many titled and untitled country gentlemen in interests 
united with them. The founder of the party was Count 
Arvid Rutger Posse, later minister of state. Emil Key and 
the peasants Charles Ifvarsson and Liss Olof Larsson were 
among the leaders of the party. The policy of the Landt- 
manna party demanded simplification of the administration, 
economy in the matter of appropriations and a solution of 
the questions of the defence and taxation in harmony with 
the interests of the owners of the soil. The party followed 
up its policy with stern consistency from Riksdag to Riks- 



408 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

dag, until in perfect control of the whole government. The 
opposition consisted of "the Intelligence" or intellectual 
party, which, without a solid constitution or a fixed policy, 
has in vain fought the spreading influence and power of the 
Landtmanna party The latter has gone almost too far in 
its endeavors for economical reform, but has also given 
evidence of appreciation of the material needs of a cultural 
development^ appropriating large sums for the benefit of 
science and education 

The army question was the most important issue of 
Swedish politics. The events of 1866 had made it evident 
that a strengthening of the defences was necessary. King 
Charles was anxious to have the question solved in a satis- 
factory manner s finding therein the only reliable safeguard 
for the future independence of Swedem It was apparent 
that any attempts to settle the question in accordance with 
the system adopted by Charles XL would be devoid of 
result, It was based upon direct taxation of the soil and 
must be opposed by the strong majority of small landown- 
ers of the Landtmanna party, A compromise policy was 
for this reason begun in 1867, the question of an abolition 
of the land tax being connected with the army question, 
although the two ought to have had no connection D The 
question was started with promises of a reduction or exemp- 
tion of the duties of the old army system as compensation 
for the acceptance of a new arrangement for the country's 
defence. The government made an army proposition to the 
Riksdag of 1869, promising several reductions to the land- 
owners who furnished soldiers according to the old sys- 
tem (indelningsverket) . The proposition was prepared 
by a committee, of which the new minister of war, Gus- 
tavus Rudolph Abelin, was the chairman. It was based 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 409 

upon the preservation of the old system for the furnish- 
ing of the body force of officers and men. The larger 
torce was to be provided for through militia, The militia 
was to be drilled in the neighborhood of their various homes 
during sixty days of the year. The proposition was not 
accepted, The militia compulsory service, as the duty of 
every citizen for the defence of his country, had nothing 
to do with the regular army as provided by the stipulations 
of the old system, But the majority of the Second Cham- 
ber confused the two and refused to allow the establishment 
of the former on a wider basis, because the offers made to 
reduce the burdens of the old system did not appear to them 
liberal enough. In 1871 another proposition was made by 
Abelin to the Riksdag. It was similar to the first one, and 
its cause was eloquently pleaded by Abelin, Axel Gustavus 
Adlercreutz, minister of justice, Peter Axel Bergstrcem, 
minister of civil service, and Gunnar Vennerberg, minister 
of ecclesiastics, They warned against the mistake of attach- 
ing impossible conditions to the acceptance of the proposi- 
tion. The proposition for an extended militia service was 
accepted by both Chambers, But when the Second Cham- 
ber raised, as a condition for its acceptance, the suspension, 
tor fifteen years, of the old system which provided for the 
regular army, the government found it impossible to grant 
this, and the proposition was dropped. 

. King Charles was grieved and vexed with the fate of the 
army bills. The Franco Prussian war made it, in his opin- 
ion, of added importance to Sweden to have her defences 
remodelled. He called an extraordinary session of the 
Riksdag, in the autumn of 1871, when Abelin brought out 
a third proposition. It was chiefly of the same contents 
as the preceding ones. But a remarkable change in the 

xx 18 



410 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

public opinion had now taken place, as to the advisability 
of retaining the old system. Men who looked upon the 
question more from a military than an economic point of 
view entertained doubts as to the practical value of the old 
regular army as the body force of a compulsory militia. 
Military officers commenced to attack the old system as the 
basis of a new army. The Landtmanna party persevered 
in the request for an abolition of the old system, and this 
killed the army bill at the extraordinary Riksdag. 

Together with the request for an abolition of the old 
army system, demands for redemption from other burdens 
placed upon the owners of the soil made themselves heard. 
The land-tax was the principal one of these burdens and 
caused as much difference of opinion as the army system. 
The Landtmanna party considered the land-tax to be of the 
same nature originally as other taxes, which ought to be 
more evenly distributed and shared by all classes in the 
same proportion. The Intelligence party was of the opinion 
that the land-tax in the course of time had come to be 
rents or mortgages which always were taken into considera- 
tion at the exchange of property, as reducing the stock value 
of the property in question. To free a present generation 
from the payment of land-tax, was in the eyes of the opposi- 
tion, an injustice to the other classes whose taxes thereby 
were to be increased. The Landtmanna party had, in 1869, 
commenced an agitation for the reduction of the land-tax 
for shorter periods and on a small scale at first, but with 
increasing demands at every new Riksdag. 

The government, whose members had been the cham- 
pions of parliamentary reform, was soon disregarded by the 
triumphant party, while its old opponents never forgot it. 
The earlier advisers of* the king retired one by one when 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 411 

they saw their influence in the Riksdag vanish. King 
Charles himself took the defeat of the army bills deep at 
heart. His health commenced to fail in 1871, and when his 
faithful consort died, in the same year, having exposed her 
own health in her attempts to improve the condition of the 
king, the latter grew worse. After a trip abroad for his 
health, King Charles XV. died at Malmoe, September 18, 
1872, deeply mourned by the two nations. In the following 
year his youngest brother Nicolaus August, duke of Dale- 
carlia, died, leaving only two of the children of Oscar 
L, Oscar Frederic, duke of East Gothland, and Princess 
Eugenie. The history of Charles XV. carries the principal 
traits of his character. His sweeping reforms in social, 
political and economical matters, and his great plans for the 
future, even if sometimes immature, or high-strung, were 
always characterized by loftiness of purpose. A typical 
Swede both in his merits and his faults, this was the secret 
of the immense popularity of King Charles, which always 
followed him, although he never sought it. 

The philosopher Christian Jacob Bostroem is the most 
popular of Swedish thinkers and the first who founded a 
national system and school of philosophy, idealistic and 
rational, and in strict opposition to the system of Hegel. 
Bostroem was born in Pitea, in 1797, was the teacher of the 
sons of Oscar I., and succeeded the able philosopher Samuel 
Grubbe, a talented follower of Hceijer, as professor of philos- 
ophy at the University of Upsala. Bostroem was a highly 
fascinating and suggestive teacher, while he neglected his 
literary production, which is neither exhaustive nor quite 
representative of his philosophy. He exerted a considerable 
influence by his outline of a philosophical state, which 
pleased the conservatives, while a much more widespread 



412 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

and lasting impression was produced by his criticism of the 
doctrines of a hell and a devil. A whole literature sprang 
into life, discussing vehemently the existence or non-exist- 
ence of the fiend. To this literature and the works and 
writings of Bostrcem is to be credited the spirit of religious 
tolerance which characterized life and literature during the 
reign of Charles XV. It fostered in the cultured few a 
leaning toward Unitarianism or Theosophy, while it gave 
rise to a shallow materialism and religious indifference in 
the less cultured classes and individuals. 

The artistic, literary and musical life bore a decided 
resemblance to the intellectually interested but dilettantic 
king. Charles XV. was surrounded by a great number of 
painters who, although possessing a good deal of talent, 
succeeded only in the smaller field of genre painting. Re- 
markable exceptions are J. F. Hceckert, Marcus Larsson 
and C. H. L. D'Uncker, who possessed sterling genius and 
acquired great fame. Several promising painters, like 
George von Rosen, developed later the full scope of their 
power. The sculptor J. P. Molin was highly talented, a 
worthy follower of B. E. Fogelberg, who had enriched 
Swedish art with a number of highly important sculptures. 

In the world of letters, the spirit of dilettantism was 
more strongly felt than in art, Swedish literature, after its 
several glorious epochs, experiencing one of its most stag- 
nant periods. A veritable giant among pygmies was Victor 
Rydberg, whose remarkable novel, "The Last Athenian,' ' 
appeared in 1859, but whose principal productivity as a poet 
and scientist belongs to a later period. So do, to a great 
extent, the best works of the poets Eduard Beckstrcem, also 
an able dramatist, and Count Carl Snoilsky. Zacharias 
Topelius, the Walter Scott and Hans Christian Andersen 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 413 

of Finland, must be mentioned here. Writing in the Swed- 
ish language, and for his principal work using subjects of 
Swedish history, he was as highly beloved in Sweden as in 
Finland. His excellent series of historical novels, called 
"The Surgeon's Stories," have been translated into several 
languages. His juvenile stories are not characterized by the 
same degree of inventive power as are the tales by Andersen, 
but Topelius had the latter's ability of placing himself in 
intimate contact with the pure minds of all ages. 

In the most national of Swedish cultural elements, the 
song, the epoch of dilettantism found its most beautiful and 
lasting expressions. The quartet and chorus singing at the 
universities of Upsala and Lund was cultivated to the high- 
est standards of excellence and had a splendid repertory in 
the songs of Otto Lindblad, Vennerberg, Prince Gustavus, 
Josephsson, Crusell, Cronhamn, etc. The Upsala students 
caused a great sensation by their singing at the Paris Exposi- 
tion of 1867, and have repeated their successes at the Paris 
Exposition of 1878, and in Berlin in 1898. Swedish quartets 
of men's and women's voices have travelled all over the 
world and made a lasting fame for this minor but bewitch- 
ing branch of musical art. As dramatic singers of the first 
rank, Louise Michaeli and Christine Nilsson have been the 
worthy successors of Jenny Lind. To this period, as well 
as to the next, belongs Elisa Hvasser, the greatest and most 
versatile actress Sweden has ever had. This artist was 
equally at home in the farce and melodrama, but excelled 
in the tragic parts of the Shakespeare, Schiller, and Ibsen 
repertory. Indispensable in their positions at the Royal The- 
atre of Stockholm, Michaeli, the songstress, and Hvasser, 
the tragedienne, did not travel, thereby losing the fame a 
world would have been only too glad to give them. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
Progress and Prosperity— Oscar II 

OSCAR II. ascended the throne at a moment when 
universal peace was restored after the great con- 
flict between France and Germany, and when an 
age of commercial prosperity for Sweden seemed to have 
begun. King Oscar had received the same superior educa 
tion as his older brothers, is as brilliantly gifted as they 
were and of a more scholarly mind. As a writer on scien- 
tific subjects, a poet and an orator, Oscar II. had distin- 
guished himself before his succession to the throne. The 
new king offered the best of securities for a sound adminis- 
tration in his thorough and versatile knowledge, wide ex- 
perience in public affairs, and rich and harmonious endow- 
ment. Oscar II. still did not find it easy to gain the love 
and admiration of the Swedish people, of which he is so 
eminently worthy. He was the successor of one of the most 
popular of rulers that the country ever saw, but King Oscar 
has lived to see his own popularity almost outrival that of 
his predecessor. King Oscar is, at seventy, a handsome, 
spirited gentleman, with that dignity which age, rare attain- 
ments,, high intelligence and a noble soul grant their com- 
mon possessor. This the most learned and popular mon- 
arch of Europe is of a tall, commanding figure, six feet 
(414) 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 415 

three inches in height, of a handsome, expressive face, with 
cheeks of a ruddy color and mild blue eyes. 

Oscar II. has shown great discernment in his arrange- 
ment of dynastic matters. Himself married to the fer- 
vently religious Princess Sophie of Nassau, the king has 
married his oldest son, Crown Prince Gustavus Adolphus, 
to Princess Victoria of Bade, a granddaughter of Emperor 
William I. of Germany, and a great-granddaughter of 
Gustavus IV. of Sweden. His third son, Prince Charles, 
duke of West Gothland, is married to Princess Ingeborg of 
Denmark, a granddaughter of Charles XV. of Sweden. 
These unions are well calculated to accentuate the increas- 
ing political, commercial and cultural intimacy with Ger- 
many, the Scandinavian policy of his predecessor and the 
desire of King Oscar to see the descendants of the old royal 
line. of Sweden as heirs to the crown. In giving his consent 
to the marriage of his second son, Prince Oscar (Berna- 
dotte), to Lady Ebba Munck, of the Swedish nobility, King 
Oscar has given evidence of the fact that he is not a match- 
maker regardless of the feelings of the parties involved. 
Prince Oscar, formerly Duke of Gothland, upon renouncing 
his share of inheritance to the two thrones, was allowed to 
marry the choice of his heart. King Oscar has tried to heal 
the wounds of the past by opening the vaults of the church 
of Riddarholm to the sarcophagi of Gustavus IV. and his 
son, and by giving Queen Carola of Saxony, the only living 
granddaughter of the former, repeated proofs of esteem and 
considerate distinction. 

King Oscar with his crowns had received as an inheri- 
tance two important problems to be solved — the reorganiza- 
tion of the Swedish army and the settlement of the diffi- 
culties in the relations between the two states of the Union,. 



416 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

The latter has not yet found a satisfactory solution, al- 
though the king has devoted to it his most strenuous atten- 
tion and the best of his efforts, in honest application to his 
royal motto: "The Weal of the Brother Nations . " 

The reorganization of the Swedish army was not effected 
until after twenty years of parliamentary struggle. The 
road of a compromise policy which was opened in 1867 was 
followed up at the Riksdag of 1873, in all the long chain 
of years royal army bills being repeatedly rejected. In 
1885 the government and Riksdag agreed on a remission 
of thirty per cent of the military taxes of landowners in 
exchange for new regulations for the militia compulsory 
service. In 1887 the Riksdag sanctioned the total abolition 
of the "indelta," or cantoned troops, as far as the navy was 
concerned, which was the first step toward the reorganiza- 
tion of the navy, and the same year the militia law of 1885 
went into effect. 

The old Landtmanna, or agrarian party, in 1888 gave 
place to a new protectionistic party, A contested election 
of twenty -two members from Stockholm gave a sudden 
majority to the protectionists, O. R. Themptander, the able 
minister of state, resigning. The army bill did not fare 
well at first. In spite of the fact that the Landtmanna 
party was brushed aside, the old enemies of an army re- 
form, the landowners, nobles and peasants alike, still being 
strong enough to successfully oppose it. The Riksdag of 
1888 passed a grain tariff, which went into effect February 
14th of the same year, enforcing several other points of a 
protective tariff system. 

King Oscar called an extraordinary, or special, session 
of the Riksdag, October 18, 1892, when royal propositions 
were offered and accepted. The land-tax was abolished and 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 41? 

a new army bill passed. According to the stipulations of 
the latter, the bevceringstid, or period of liability for every 
citizen to bear arms, was extended to embrace twenty years 
instead of twelve, viz., eight years in the first ban of the 
landtvcern, or militia, four years in the second ban, and 
eight years in the landstorm, or final levy The first ban of 
militia is in time of war to form an integral part of the 
first fighting line, the second ban forming a reserve for 
the first fighting line. The final levy is to be called out 
for garrison duty exclusively, and for the defence of the 
country against foreign invasion. Six military districts 
have been established, five distributed along the entire coast 
of Sweden, the sixth inland in the western provinces to be 
a reserve ready to be used at the point and moment most 
needed. The reorganized army in active service is com- 
posed of vcerfvade, or enlisted troops, and indelta, or can- 
toned troops, the expenses also of the latter being paid by 
the government. The royal guards, chasseurs, hussars, 
artillery, and engineers are enlisted for two years up to 
eight. The militia troops are distributed among both the 
enlisted and the cantoned troops, the length of service with 
the colors being ninety days in time of peace. The infantry 
in which all the cantoned troops serve consist of twenty-six 
regiments and two battalions. The line is armed with 
Remingtons of 8.8 millimetres calibre. There are eight 
regiments of cavalry and six regiments and six batteries 
of field artillery, forty batteries in all, with 240 cannon. 
The effective of the active army, in 1896, was 1,953 officers, 
571 employees, 1,779 non-commissioned officers, 1,641 musi- 
cians and 38,802 men, with 6,852 horses. The war effective 
is 272,994 men, besides 180,000 in the landstorm. The 
chief fortifications of Sweden are Carlscrona, on the south 



418 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

coast; two fortresses outside of Stockholm, viz., Vaxholm 
and Oscar Fredericsborg; and, in the interior, Carlsborg, 
near Lake Vetter. The navy comprises 4 turret ships, with 
10 inch armor, armed each with 2 10-inch and 4 5.9-inch 
guns, and having a total displacement of 12,450 tons; 4 
armor clad monitors, 9 armored gunboats, 3 corvettes, 
9 first-class and 5 second-class gunboats, 2 torpedo cruis- 
ers, 7 first-class and 9 second-class torpedo boats, 5 torpedo 
launches, and 12 school ships. The navy is manned by 267 
officers and about 4,500 sailors, not including conscripts 
to the number of 8,500 men. The entire cost of the de- 
fence of Sweden exceeds ten million dollars a year. 

The movement for a reorganization of the defences has 
not been caused by any change in the policy of peace, which 
has faithfully been carried out by all the rulers of the 
Bernadotte dynasty. The ruler of Sweden and her people 
desire peace, but not as a gift of mercy from the great 
powers, but as a self-chosen right which can be effectively 
defended if necessary. The ever-increasing armament of 
the European powers has made a strengthening of the 
Swedish arms unavoidable, but the Swedish government 
was the first to announce its readiness to accept the invita- 
tion of Czar Nicholas II. of Russia to a conference for the 
discussion of a general reduction of the regular armies. 
Germany was made the pattern for the reorganization of 
the army and navy, the Swedish government having fol- 
lowed the German also in the treatment of the labor ques- 
tion, with schemes of accident and old-age insurance, ac- 
cepted by the Riksdag. 

King Oscar, at his succession to the throne, gave evi- 
dence of his desire to meet the reasonable demands of his 
Norwegian subjects. He sanctioned, in 1873, the abolition 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 419 

of the office of a governor- general of Norway, the govern- 
ment at Christiania to be presided over by a Norwegian 
minister of state. To the later Norwegian demands for 
a separate flag, consular service and ministry of foreign 
affairs, King Oscar has been unyielding. The flag question 
is of subordinate importance. King Oscar, in 1899, has 
refused to sanction the resolution of the Storthing, three 
times passed, for a flag without the mark of Union, for the 
reason that the flag with that mark was offered to Norway 
by his father, Oscar I., and gratefully accepted when the 
country had no colors at all, except the Swedish. The 
Swedish people will carry their old flag with the mark of 
Union, irrespective of any changes made in the Norwegian 
colors. More serious are the questions of consular and 
diplomatic service. In 1893, the Swedish government of- 
fered to compromise by establishing a common ministry of 
foreign affairs whose head might be indifferently a Swede 
or a Norwegian. This was rejected by the Norwegian 
Storthing. The same offer was made in 1837, when the 
dispute first arose, provided that the Norwegian troops 
should share the duty of the common defence of both king- 
doms. The Swedish Riksdag of 1893 passed a resolution, 
in compliance with which King Oscar for a second time 
refused to sanction the bill of Norwegian consulates. 

The diametrically opposite views which are held in re- 
gard to the relations of Sweden and Norway are, to a great 
extent, caused by a misconception of the nature of the 
Union. In lack of a Union parliament, it has by many 
been considered to be only a personal union of two countries 
under the same king. Such is not the case. It is true that 
the two countries are both free and independent states and 
that the king is the only visible bond between them, accord- 



420 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

ing to the Act of Union, but the Union is nevertheless an 
actual and not a personal one. If it was only persona], the 
king could at will, or when forced to do so, resign his power 
in one of the countries and continue his reign in the other. 
The Act of Union cannot be changed except upon a resolu- 
tion, enacted in both of the respective diets, and with the 
sanction of the king in behalf of the Union. A change can 
be made at the same Swedish Riksdag at which it is pro- 
posed, at the Norwegian Storthing not until the next regular 
session. As a consequence the Union cannot be dissolved 
by the representatives of either country alone, and the king 
cannot dissolve it by exercising any power of his own. The 
king cannot abdicate one throne without abdicating the 
other, for the first paragraph of the Act of Union stipulates 
that the two countries shall be indissolubly and irrevocably 
united under the rule of the same king. No abdication can 
be granted, except by common consent of the two diets in 
joint session. When the two thrones are empty, without 
an heir- apparent, a new king shall be elected by the two 
diets in common. What underlies the Norwegian claims 
of a separate foreign ministry is, besides to own an out- 
ward sign of the country's independence, a desire for a 
closer constitutional control of diplomatic affairs. From 
the Swedish side the desirability of a Union parliament and 
a greater authority for the Union government has been 
expressed. The Swedes have been found unwilling to grant 
any change of the constitution of the Union, except the 
right be added for the Union government to dispose of the 
military forces of both countries, in equal proportion, for 
the common defence. King Oscar's standpoint in the 
Unionist conflict has contributed much to increase his pop- 
ularity in Sweden, where his firm refusal to sanction any 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 421 

measure which would cause a weakening to the Union has 
been received with the highest approval. 

A committee to review the relations of the Union and 
propose a revision of its charter was appointed in 1897, but 
tailed to accomplish anything, the views of the Swedish and 
Norwegian members differing too radically in their opin- 
ions. It is to be hoped that the ultimate solution of the 
unionist conflict, whensoever it come or whatsoever it be, 
will bring the two countries of the Scandinavian peninsula 
closer together, without any great sacrifice on either side, 
least of all of their independence. 

During the more than eighty years of peace which Swe- 
den has enjoyed under the rule of the Bernadotte dynasty, 
she has developed her constitutional liberty and her ma- 
terial prosperity in a high degree. The dreams of glory by 
conquest belong to days gone by, but in the fields of peace= 
able industries she has attained a greatness which the world 
begins to realize. At the expositions of Paris in 1867, 1878 
and 1889, of Vienna in 1873, of Philadelphia in 1876 and of 
Chicago in 1893, Swedish industry and art have taken part 
with honor in the international competition. The railways 
of Sweden have incessantly spun a more and more extended 
network of steel over the country, opening connections for 
enterprises in new districts and furthering commerce and 
industrial art in a wide measure. Oscar II. is an enthusi- 
astic friend of railway improvements, the state having built 
and acquired a quite considerable length of road at his ini- 
tiative. The length of Swedish railways, in 1896, was 6,145 
miles, of which 2,283 miles belonged to the state, compared 
to a total of 1,089 miles of Norwegian railways. 

The post office, which was made a government depart- 
ment by Axel Oxenstierna, in 1636, annually transmits 130 



422 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

million letters and parcels. The telegraph lines have not 
reached a very high state of development; still there are 
14,600 miles of telegraph. The telephone has made much 
more progress, far surpassing that of any other country 
in Europe. The total length of the connections exceeds 
40,000 miles, and the number of apparatus is more than 
25,000. Stockholm makes the widest use of the tele- 
phone of any city in the world, with her 300,000 inhabi- 
tants having a telephone for every thirty. Sweden has 
developed into a commercial country of no inconsiderable 
rank, notwithstanding her isolated position. Exports and 
imports each exceed yearly in value $100,000,000, the im- 
ports being 344,290,000 kronor and the exports 311,434,000 
kronor in value, in 1895, a Swedish krona being about 
twenty-eight cents. The commercial value of the foreign 
trade amounts to thirty-nine dollars in yearly average for 
each inhabitant of Sweden, which is about as much as in 
France. The imports chiefly consist of coal, coffee, salt, 
cotton and wool, while the exports are timber products, 
about forty per cent of the whole, iron and steel, the best 
in the world, machinery, butter, cattle, matches, etc. The 
inland navigation and commerce are very lively. The state 
finances are in a prosperous condition. The budget of 
1898 showed total receipts of 120,086,000 kronor, of which 
14,229,000 was surplus from proceeding budgets. 

Thanks to the well equipped and regulated system of 
instruction, the general education has been so highly ad- 
vanced that Sweden, in this respect, holds the very front 
rank among the nations. Besides the national universities 
of Upsala and Lund and the state medical college of Stock- 
holm, city universities at Stockholm and Gothenburg have 
been recently founded which are quickly developing. All 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 423 

study at the universities consists of post-graduate work, 
there being about thirty colleges in various parts of the 
country which lead their pupils as far as the demands 
requisite for entering the universities. The Swedish uni- 
versity courses are of unexcelled thoroughness and com- 
pleteness. The so-called Peasant High Schools are peculiar 
to Scandinavia, having originated in Denmark. There are 
twenty -five such high schools in Sweden, which give to 
young men and women of the peasant class a higher educa- 
tion than is available in the common schools, of which latter 
there are 10,702, with 692,360 pupils and 13,797 teachers. 

Scientific research progresses with energy and success, 
and Sweden possesses to-day a great number of eminent 
scholars, even if the epoch of men of universal genius ap- 
pears to be a thing of the past there as elsewhere. Swedish 
scientists have opened closer relations with their co-workers 
in all parts of the world, The energy of King Oscar has 
brought about several congresses of science at Stockholm. 
In the natural sciences, Sweden still holds an honored place, 
in physics offering two great names, Eric Edlund and A. *L 
Angstrcem, the latter celebrated for his work on the solar 
spectrum, which forms the basis for the spectral analysis. 
Death has claimed these men and also J. A. H. Gylden, 
an eminent astronomer; J, G. Agardh, C. W. Blomstrand, 
H. O. Nathorst, J. E. Rydquist, able botanist, chemist, 
agriculturist, and philologist, respectively; Pontus Wikner, 
the most remarkable of the disciples of the philosopher 
Bostroem, and Victor Rydberg, the philosophical poet, 
novelist and polyhistor. 

Among the most noteworthy of living Swedish scholars 
are Adolph Noren, Axel Koch and Esaias Tegner, Junior, 
philologists; Hans Hildebrand and Oscar Montelius, archse- 



424 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

ologists; P. Fahlbeck, Nils and Magnus Hoejer, Martin 
Weibull, Ernest Carlson, historians; A. M. Mittag-Leffler, 
mathematician; Hugo Hildebrandsson, meteorologist; E. A. 
H. Key, E. O. T. Westerlund, Anton Wetterstrand, F. J. 
Biornstrcem, T. F. Hartelius, Curt Wallis, prominent in 
various branches of medical science. 

King Oscar with fervent interest and unfailing liberality 
has encouraged various scientific explorations, and has had 
the satisfaction to see the greatest geographical discoveries 
of the century successfully made by Swedes, the circum- 
navigation of Asia and Europe, and the discovery of the 
Northeast Passage by Baron N. A. E. Nordenskiold, and 
the exploration of Central Asia by Sven Hedin, which has 
forever settled the learned disputes of ages. A third expe- 
dition, the most daring of scientific exploits ever attempted, 
still keeps the world in suspense as to its final outcome. 
July 11, 1897, S. A. Andree, a scientifically experienced 
aeronaut, with two companions, Nils Strindberg and Knut 
Freenkel, started in a balloon constructed for the purpose, 
and with provisions for three years, from an island of 
Spitzbergen, with the purpose of reaching the North Pole. 
The daring aeronauts have not been heard from since their 
departure, but authorities like Baron Nordenskiold have 
expressed the best of hopes that they may have reached 
Franz Joseph's Land in safety, whence they might regain 
settled regions. 1 S. A. Andree belongs to a class of men, 
the Swedish engineers, who have won distinction for their 
ability, and on whom the examples set by Christopher 
Polhem and John Ericsson have had a stimulating influ- 



J A. C. Nathorst, an able scientist and explorer, started in the sum- 
mer of 1899 with an expedition to Greenland in search of Andree and 
his companions. 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 425 

ence. There are among them two inventors of the very- 
first rank, who belong to the reign of Oscar II., Alfred 
Nobel (d. 1896), the inventor of dynamite, and Gustavus 
de Laval, the Swedish Edison. The latter is world-famous 
for his separator and other inventions, which have revolu- 
tionized the dairy industry. Alfred Nobel, the disciple of 
John Ericsson, has not only the glory of having invented 
one of the most useful helpers of mechanic and industrial 
progress, but also that of having set aside his vast fortune, 
amounting to something like $12,500,000, for public pur- 
poses. The money is so invested as to constitute a fund 
the interest of which shall be applied to five equal annual 
prizes, to be awarded for the most important discovery or 
improvement in chemistry, physics or medicine, for the 
work in literature highest in the ideal sense, and to the one 
who shall have acted most and best for the fraternity of 
nations, the suppression or reduction of standing armies, 
and the constitution and propagation of peace congresses. 
The first prize, physics and chemistry, shall be awarded by 
the Academy of Science of Sweden ; that for physiology and 
medicine by the Carolin Institute of Stockholm; the literary 
prize by the Swedish Academy; and that for the propaga- 
tion of peace by a commission of five members elected by 
the Norwegian Storthing. He especially directed that in dis- 
tributing these prizes no consideration of nationality shall 
prevail, so that he who is most worthy of it shall receive 
the reward, whether he be Scandinavian or not. It seems 
that the sum of each of the five annual prizes thus instituted 
will amount to $75,000. The inventor of dynamite was 
deeply interested in all that was done to promote peace by 
congresses and societies. He always considered that by im- 
proving war material, and thus increasing the dangers of 



426 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

war, he was contributing his share toward the pacification 
of the world. Alfred Nobel has, by the manner in which 
the Norwegian Storthing is made an active party in the dis- 
position of his will, indicated his view upon the Union of 
Sweden and Norway and his hopes for a peaceful solution 
of their conflicts. 

Swedish literature, after the period of dilettantism and 
epigones, has, during the reign of Oscar II., twice been 
rejuvenated and continues its development on broadened 
paths and with a wider scope. The eighties were char- 
acterized by a strong realistic movement, which went far 
in daring truth of description and brought problems of a 
social, religious and political nature under discussion in 
works of a novelistic or dramatic form. In naturalism, 
it never went to the extremes of the other Scandinavian 
literature. The movement was to a great extent brought 
on by Norwegian and Danish influence, and soon subsided 
for want of solid and fascinating art to maintain it. The 
Swedish champion of this movement, although without the 
restrictions of any school, was August Strindberg, a genius 
of extraordinary endowment. Through the versatility and 
power of his talent, he created new forms for the Swedish 
drama, novel, short story and essay. In his battle against 
reactionary conservatism he went too far; an excitable 
nature, led into extremes, but he has had the manly courage 
to confess and regret his mistakes. Strindberg, who is an 
able historian, ethnographer, naturalist and sinologue, is the 
most versatile and prolific of contemporary writers. In the 
wide scope of his genius and originality of his methods, 
Strindberg is one of the most remarkable dramatists that 
ever lived. His autobiographical works are of supreme 
importance, both to the students of literature and psychol- 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 427 

ogy. Among his masterpieces are " Master Olof," the great 
historic drama of his youth, "Swedish Fates and Ad ven- 
tures,' ' and "Utopia Realized," two series of short stories, 
and "The Father," a modern drama of unsurpassed tragic 
grandeur. 

Several woman took an active part in the literary discus- 
sion of social problems, with more or less justice considered 
as the champions of women's rights. Among these Anne 
Charlotte Leffler, duchessa di Cajanello, in spite of her 
premature death, developed into a novelist of merit who 
will be placed side by side with Bremer, Knorring and 
Carlen. 

The golden lyres of Romanticism were silenced and the 
epigones were hushed by the sarcasms of Realism. Count 
Snoilsky and Victor Rydberg were the only poets of the 
earlier period who sang with inspiration and were listened 
to. After the realistic movement of the eighties came a 
romantic reaction with new lyrics and new novelists, who 
avoided the ruthlessness of the realists, but had profited by 
their merits. This new movement cannot be called a school, 
for it is marked by its great versatility of subjects and great 
elasticity of treatment. If the definition of realistic art 
be "a piece of nature seen through a temperament," that 
of the new movement may be "an artistic temperament 
attuned to pieces of nature, ' ' a sensitive and supple talent 
which has an almost unlimited capacity to tell every story 
just in the vein its particular subject demands. Pre-eminent 
in this movement stand Ola Hansson, Selma Lagerlcef, 
Verner von Heidenstam, Gustaf af Geijerstam, Peter Hall- 
strcem, Thor Hedberg, Oscar Levertin, all fine novelists, 
almost all good poets, and Geijerstam, an able dramatist. 
One of the most interesting and supremely gifted poets 



±28 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

Sweden has ever had is Gustaf Froeding, who generally 
excels, sometimes abuses, his remarkable versatility in find- 
ing a true lyric expression for the very widest range of sub- 
jects. Sigurd Hedenstierna is the most popular humorist, 
witty in his sketches, but impossible as a novelist. The 
greatest humorists are August Strindberg and Gustaf 
Froeding. Contemporary Sweden has very few and no 
great literary critics, but some good literary historians 
in Henric Schueck, Karl Warburg and Oscar Levertin. 
She has a number of able journalists, most distinguished 
among whom is their Nestor, S. A. Hedlund, of Gothen 
burg, a fiery but dignified champion of a liberal govern- 
ment, religious tolerance, social evolution and cultural 
progress. 

Swedish literature has a long pedigree compared to 
Swedish art, which is hardly more than two centuries old. 
All the more remarkable, then, is its rapid growth and high 
degree of excellence. The first school of Swedish painters 
was founded by the German Ehrenstrahl, giving to Swedish 
art the cosmopolitan character it has preserved to this day, 
influenced by continental but chiefly French art. Swedish 
painters early attracted attention abroad. Gustavus Lund- 
berg, with a picture of Boucher and his wife, won the 
greatest success of the Salon of Paris, in 1743. Peter 
Adolphus Hall, "painter to the king and the children of 
France," has been called the Van Dyck of the miniature 
painters. He resided in Paris up to the time of the revolu- 
tion and took part in the storming of the Bastile. Alex- 
ander Roslin was, from the year 1760, installed in the 
Louvre as painter to the king and councillor of the French 
Academy. In 1771 he carried home a prize which the im- 
mortal Greuze could not capture, much to the dismay of 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 429 

Diderot, and died as the most famous and wealthy artist 
of the period. In a later period, Italy attracted many 
Swedish artists, and later still, in the sixties of the present 
century, the influence of Germany, especially of the Dussel- 
dorf school, was strongly felt. John Frederic Hceckert 
won the first prize of the Paris Exposition of 1855 with his 
large picture s ' Divine Service in the Lapmark. " When the 
glories of Hceckert were almost forgotten at home, Edward 
Wahlberg, in the seventies, was ushered into celebrity as 
one ot the greatest landscape painters of modern times, 
equally appreciated in Germany, as later in France, and new 
French laurels were won by Hugo Salmson, William von 
Gegerfelt and August Hagborg. Since then French influ- 
ences have become solidly established, with a few impor- 
tant artists of the Munich school, like C. G, Hellquist and 
Julius Kronberg. The climax of artistic honors was 
reached by Nils Forsberg, whose picture, "The Death 
of a Hero," carried home the first prize of the French 
Salon in 1888 (not an exposition medal), a distinction which 
no Swede and exceedingly few non French artists ever won. 
The repeated successes which Swedish painters have won 
at expositions of Europe were more than duplicated by 
the enthusiastic approval granted it at the World's Fair 
in Chicago in 1893. The truth is that Sweden possesses 
a number of eminent painters in every branch of painting, 
except the marine, which has been but sparingly represented 
since the days of Marcus Larsson. The most famous among 
them are, besides those already mentioned, Richard Bergh, 
Oscar Biorck, Eva Bonnier, Gustavus Cederstrcem, Prince 
Eugene, Eugene Jansson, Ernest Josephson, Nils Kreuger, 
Carl Larsson, Bruno Liljefors, Charles Nordstrcem, Allan 
GEsterlind, Georg and Hanna Pauli, George von Rosen, 



430 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

Robert Thegerstrom, and A. L. Zorn. It has been said 
of the Swedish painters, by way of complaint, that they 
are not, as their brethren in Denmark and Norway,, in any 
marked degree national. Swedish art has, for its character- 
istic boldness and superiority in modern technique, loftiness 
of purpose, great individuality of expression and depth of 
feeling. Be these characteristics national or cosmopolitan, 
the Swedish painters are certainly a great credit to their 
country. To King Oscar it must be in a high degree satis- 
factory to see the artistic tendencies of his family culminate 
in the works of his youngest son, Prince Eugene, who, 
being in the front line of the advance corps of art, paints, 
from dreamy, inner life, pictures which are the delight of 
artists and true connoisseurs. 

The sculptors are less numerous, but the art of Sergei, 
Fogelberg and Molin have found worthy perpetuators and 
innovators in Per Hasselberg, John Bcerjesson, Frithiof 
Kjellberg, Alfred Nystrcem, Christian Ericsson, Th. Lund- 
berg and Ingel Pallstedt. To the art of metal engraving 
on coins and medals Sweden has offered some works of the 
very highest value by J. E„ Ericson, P. H. Lundgren, Lea 
Ahlborn and Adolphus Lindbergo 

Architecture cannot boast of any continuous chain of 
brilliant development. Since the days of Ficodemus Tes- 
sin there have been few great architects until in very recent 
times, when architecture has received a sudden impetus 
which has made its progress and results as remarkable, or 
almost more so, than that of the other arts. To Helgo 
Zettervall a number of elaborate national works of con- 
struction and restoration have been intrusted and, as a 
rule, carried through in a meritorious manner, although 
sometimes giving occasion for serious criticism. An im- 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 431 

portant influence was exerted by Frederic William Scholan- 
der, more by his teaching than by his works. It is prin- 
cipally his pupils who in the last few decades have almost 
revolutionized the building methods and architectural aspect 
of the capital, and endowed Gothenburg and other towns 
with works of architectural distinction. Pre-eminent among 
modern architects are I. G. Clason, Gustavus Wickman, 
K. F. von Gegerfelt, Adrian Peterson, Hans Hedlund, 
Val fried Karlson, A. F. Anderberg, E. Lallerstedt. The 
Vasa, or Swedish Castle Renaissance, which with good 
effect has been reintroduced for monumental buildings, 
seems to lead architecture on to a wholesome national 
development, combining impressive outlines and solidity 
with elaboration and grace of interior decoration. 

The foremost composers of orchestral music have been 
mentioned above. Sweden maintains her reputation as 
being the country of song through the compositions by 
Hedenblad, Kcerling, Svedbom, Sjcegren and Arlberg, 
while Soederman has brought the form of the ballad, based 
on national folk music, to the highest development. The 
royal opera of Stockholm recently moved into new and 
elegant quarters erected on the site of the old opera house 
built by Gustavus III. It possesses, in Caroline QEstberg, 
Mathilde Linden, Arvid CEdman, C. F. Lundquist and J. 
Elmblad, dramatic singers of high rank, while Sweden, in 
Louise Pyk, Mathilde Grabow Taube and Solomon Smith, 
owns concert singers of great eminence. The international 
firmament of song has two Swedish stars of considerable 
magnitude in Sigrid Arnoldsson-Fischhoff, a colorature 
songstress, and Ellen NordgrenGnllbrandson, a Wagner 
singer. The greatest actor is Emil Hillberg, a noble 
creator of Ibsen and Strindberg roles, while the country 



432 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

recently lost its ablest comedian in the death of Knut 
Almloef. 

Sweden of to-day offers an attractive picture of a coun- 
try in a high degree cultured and prosperous 3 but no country 
or period is entitled to reap only benefits or enjoy undis- 
turbed happiness. No progress is obtained without struggle 
and relapses, and a good must give way for something 
better. Beneath a surface generally smiling and serene 
formidable religious and social forces are in motion. The 
Swedish state church is divided into two camps, which 
resemble a high and a low church, out of which the whole 
may come forward strengthened and rejunevated. The 
various sects are not all satisfied with the degree of liberty 
they enjoy. A shallow materialistic movement of anti-relig- 
ious tendencies, which styled itself Utilitarian, caused some 
sensation in the latter eighties and early nineties, more 
through the somewhat too severe manner in which it was 
suppressed than through any of its own merits. There are 
agitators for a separation of state and church who are 
opposed by some of the stanchest friends of a constitu- 
tional monarchy. A separation of educational and church 
affairs seems desirable. The yeomen have regained the 
predominant position in political life which was theirs in 
the time of. the ancient Teutonic communities, using their 
power in a way which is not always beneficial to the other 
classes or the state at large. The great class of country 
population, which has been in vain striving to rise to the 
privileged class of landowners, if even on the smallest 
scale, have emigrated in vast numbers. The emigration, 
which has given America at least 1,200,000 inhabitants of 
Swedish birth or parentage, is one of the most astounding 
phenomena of the century. It has, to a large extent, sub- 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 433 

sided, but may be revived if the pressure for social improve- 
ment is found of no avail. The workingmen are resolved 
to gain a representation and are striving to attain the intro- 
duction of general suffrage. The weapons they use are 
principally strikes, but may also turn to wholesale emigra- 
tion. In 1893 the advocates of universal suffrage arranged 
for the election of a convention by popular vote, the first 
Polksriksdag, which addressed an appeal to the legal Riks- 
dag, to consider an amendment for the extension of the 
suffrage. The liberals and radicals are interested in this 
agitation, and brought out their full vote to the Folksriks- 
dag, The conservative party ignores the whole movement, 
probably not wisely. The towns are seeking an extended 
representation and bitterly oppose the curtailment of the 
rights already enjoyed, fearing the reactionary tendencies 
of the conservatives, who have their strength in the large 
agrarian population, Anarchism is something unknown 
in Sweden. The socialistic agitation, which is spreading 
among the classes without a political representation, is car- 
ried on without any great bitterness and entirely without 
lawless means. 

Any practical or theoretical agitation for a republic there 
is none in Sweden, the population as a whole not finding 
salvation from the defects of government or society in any 
outward change of rule. Civil service is enforced to the 
letter, and the social pressure from above downward is of a 
nature caused by financial or educational supremacy only 
and would remain the same under republican rule. The 
Swedes are proud of their history and the long and unbroken 
chain of their political and social development. Their 
neighbors accuse them of having traces of the chauvinism 

of bygone days, but not altogether with justice. Tho 

xx 19 



434 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

national anthem of Sweden can be quoted in their justifica- 
tion. It speaks, in one instance, of the country as en- 
throned on memories of a glorious past when its name 
filled the world; but that name is the Forth, to whose 
grandeur and loveliness of nature the whole song is a pane- 
gyric. The name of Sweden is not even mentioned, a fact 
which does not point to a narrow or antiquated form of 
patriotism. There is in the nature of the Swedes a ten- 
dency to delight in the display of dignified luxury, which 
was known to TacituSo The Swedes love to see the crown 
of one of the oldest states of Europe carried with dig- 
nity as an emblem of their ancient independence. The 
Swedish king has in reality less power than the President 
of the United States, but the Swedes have an inherited 
faculty of confidence and loyalty of which their king re- 
ceives his full share. The Swedes become excellent citizens 
of a republic for that very reason : reverence for, and loy- 
alty to, the institutions and historial development of the 
country in which they dwell. Among the Scandinavian 
nationalities, the Swede has been characterized as the noble- 
man or aristocrat, on account of his love of luxury and the 
joys of life, his dignity, diplomatic talent and lyrico-rhetoric 
temperament. It is true that his dignity seldom forsakes 
the Swede ; when it does, something of the soldier of the 
Thirty Years' War comes to the surface. To her diplomatic 
talent, more than to her glorious victories, Sweden owes 
her superiority in size, prosperity and political importance, 
as compared to her Scandinavian neighbors. 

The fundamental laws of the kingdom of Sweden are: 
1. The constitution of June 6, 1809; 2. The amended reg- 
ulations for the formation of the Riksdag of June 22, 1866; 
3. The law of royal succession of September 26, 1810; and 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 435 

on the liberty of the press of July 16, 1812. According to 
these statutes, the king must be a member of the Lutheran 
church, and have sworn fealty to the laws of the land. His 
person is inviolable. He has the right to declare war and 
make peace after consulting the state council. He nomi- 
nates to all higher appointments, both military and civil; 
concludes foreign treaties, and has a right to preside in the 
supreme court of justice. The princes of the blood royal 
are excluded from all civil employments. The king pos- 
sesses legislative power in matters of political administra- 
tion, but in all other respects that power is exercised by the 
Riksdag, in concert with the sovereign, and every new law 
must have the assent of the crown. The right of imposing 
taxes is vested in the Riksdag. The executive power is in 
the hands of the king, who acts under the advice of a cab- 
inet or state council, the head of which is the minister of 
state. It consists of ten members, seven of whom are min- 
isterial heads of departments and three without departments. 
All the members of the cabinet are responsible for the acts 
of the government. 

Eric Gustavus Bostrcem is minister of state, holding 
office since 1891, after the protectionists had got into power 
and the compromise cabinets which followed were a thing 
of the past. The other ministers without departments, 
Baron A. L. E. Akerhielm and S. H. Wikblad, have re- 
mained in office since the days of compromise cabinets. The 
other members who have been in office from five to eight 
years are as follows: Count L. V. A. Douglas, minister 
of foreign affairs; P. S. L. Annerstedt, minister of justice; 
Baron A. E. Rappe, minister of war; J. d E. Christerson, 
minister of marine; J. E. von Krusenstierna, minister of 
interior; Count H. Hansson Wachtmeister, minister of 



43G HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

finance; G. P. Gilljam, minister of education and eccle- 
siastical affairs. 

King Oscar II., in the jubilee year of 1897, which 
marked the completion of a quarter of a century of his 
reign, received innumerable proofs of the love of the two 
nations under his rule and of the high esteem in which he 
is held by the governments and citizens of foreign countries. 
The occasion was celebrated by a large and highly success- 
ful Scandinavian exposition at Stockholm in the summer, 
Russia, with Finland, also taking part, and by a series of 
festivities about September 21st, the date of his succession 
to the throne. King Oscar has always given sympathetic 
attention to the United States, especially to their citizens 
of Swedish birth. Several deputations from America called 
upon the king in the jubilee year. Among these was a 
male chorus of fifty -four members, belonging to the Amer- 
ican Union of Swedish singers. The singers were invited 
to the royal castle and received and feasted by the aged 
monarch with cordial simplicity, in all royal splendor, with- 
out any of its pomp or ceremony. To the hearty songs of 
his unpretentious guests, King Oscar responded with one 
of the eloquent speeches for which he is so justly famous, 
assuring them that, although citizens of another land, they 
were still followed by the loving interest of their mother 
country and her monarch. When the singers intoned one 
of the songs by Prince Gustavus, the king joined them with 
his sonorous tenor voice, smilingly calling their attention 
to the fact that he had not forgotten his students' songs. 
The anniversary of the seventieth birthday of Oscar II. was 
celebrated January 21, 1899, a slight gloom being cast over 
it on account of the temporary illness of the king. Oscar 
II. fully recovered after a few months of rest and recreation 



HISTORY OF SWEDEN 437 

anc! bears every indication of attaining the same advanced 
age, with the same unimpaired activity, as his grandfather, 
which would mean another decade added to the era of un- 
disturbed peace. Crown Prince Gustavus Adolphus, who 
is yet little known in Norway, enjoys great popularity in 
Sweden, where his harmonious, sagacious nature and reso- 
lute energy are highly respected. 

The reign of Oscar II. in Sweden has been marked by 
reactionary movements in Church and State, but the king 
has been in such close contact with his people that they 
have recognized in him a sovereign who stands above the 
parties. The king has used the conservative elements of his 
country to strengthen her defences and to maintain the 
Union with Norway, which have been the great goals of 
his policy of peace. To sum up King Oscar's standpoint 
in the Norwegian question, he is willing to grant Norway 
home rule in its fullest extent, but refuses to grant her 
separate control of foreign affairs, which he considers incom- 
patible with the idea of the Union. In this standpoint 
King Oscar is backed by the convictions of the overwhelm- 
ing majority of Swedes, who see in the dissolution of the 
Union a danger to Sweden, Norway, or both countries, of 
sharing the fate of unhappy Finland, which the civilized 
world is now deeply deploring. The danger which menaces 
the sons of Suomi has touched all Scandinavians to the 
quick, and it would seem that the new century shall wit- 
ness a restoration of the Scandinavian policy. If the move- 
ment to bring this about meets with success, it is to be 
hoped that, from the start, it shall have rather the actual 
wants than the ideal rights of the independent Scandinavian 
states in view. From the point of view of citizens of the 
United States we cannot but sympathize with a movement 



438 HISTORY OF SWEDEN 

which may establish a union of independent states into a 
realm of imperial government, less an emperor. Let there 
rather be two or three kings in the North, with one solid 
union government and a common and equal defence in case 
of war, than two or three foreign ministers with as many 
different policies and a divided and unequal defence. 



INDEX 



INDEX 



Abelin, G. R., 408-410. 

Abo, 89, 122, 171, 172, 186, 232, 313, 

370; peace treaty (in 1743), 316, 

317. University of Abo (see 

Universities). 
Absolutism, Absolute Monarchv, 

255-258, 260, 268, 293, 298, 300- 

301, 302, 308, 309, 310, 314, 344, 

349, 350, 357. 
Academic style, 339. 
Academy, of Antiquities, 235; of 

Art, 346; of Science, 336-337, 340, 

346; Swedish, 346, 355; French, 

428; Military, 355. 
Adalvard, 68; the Younger, 68. 
Adam of Bremen, 63. 
Adlerbeth, G. G., 345, 350. 
Adlercreutz, C. J., 358, 360-361, 

362, 367; A. G.,409. 
Adlersparre, George, 362. 
Admiral, 189; State, 250. 
Adolphus Frederic of Sweden, 303, 

316, 317-320, 339. 
Adolphus John, Duke, 249. 
Adrianople, 297-298. 
Africa, 232. 
Aftonbladet, 377, 403. 
Agardh, J. G., 423. 
Agne, 86. 
Agnefit, 36. 

Agriculture. See Sweden. 
Ahlborn, Lea, 430. 
Ahlstroemer, John, 317, 321, 334- 

337. 
Akerhielm, A. L. N., 435. 
Akkershus, district of, 248, 307; 

fortress of, 307. 
Aland archipelago, 171, 388; peace 

deliberations at, 306. 



Albrecht the Elder, duke of Meck=> 

lenburg, 95; the Younger, king 

of Sweden, 95, 96-97, 100, 102, 

103. 
Alemannians, 29. 
Alexander I. of Russia, 357-358, 

370. 
Alexandra, princess of Russia, 355- 

356. 
Alexandria, 27. 
Alf, 36. 

Alfred the Great, 43. 
Alingsos, 217, 334-337. 
Alliance, 187, 189, 202, 206, 225, 

259, 273, 283, 296. 315, 319, 344, 

352, 357, 370, 388, 404; Triple, 

252. 
Alliterative prose, 66; verse, 61, 66. 
Almlcef, N. V., 390; Knut, 432. 
Almquist, C. J. L., 388-389. 
Alnsnoe, meeting at, 86. 
Alof, 38. 
Alps, 21. 
Alrek, 36. 

Altmark, armistice of, 203. 
Altona, 295. 
Alt-Ranstaedt, 279-281; peace 

treaty signed at, 281, 290. 
Alvastra 74 77. 
Ambassadors, 254, 269, 272, 305, 

358, 368. 
Amber, 17, 24. 
America, 232, 324, 332, 351, 432, 436; 

South America, 378. 
American Union of Swedish Sing= 

ers, 436. 
Amsterdam, 323, 326. 
Anastasius, 28. 
Anatomy, 262, 325; hall of, 262- 

263. 
Anckarstroem, J. J., 352. 

(439) 



440 



INDEX 



Anckarsverd, C. H., 362, 377, 379. 

Anderberg, A. F., 431. 
Andreae, Laurentius, 141, 150. 
Andree, S. A., 424. 
Ane, or Aune, King, 37. 
Angermanland, 5. 
Angerraannus, Abraham, 183, 184. 
Anglii, 47. 
Anglo-Saxon, 58, 62. See also Old 

English. 
Angst roam, A. J., 423. 
Anjala Conspiracy, 348-349, 359. 
Anne of England, 280. 
Annerstedt, P. S. L , 435. 
Ansgar, 41, 53-55. 
Antiquarian, 233, 235. See also 

Archaeology. 
Anund, Swedish kings: Broet- 

Anund, 39; Anund, 42; Anund, 

or Jacob, 62-63. 
Apocalypse, 356. 
Apostles, Swedish, 41, 53-55, 58. 
Apraxin, Admiral, 289. 
A^rabs 4-9 50 
Arbog'a, 108, 115, 124, 127, 161, 185, 

387. 
Arboga articles, 161. 
Archaean rocks, 6. 
Ardan. See Jordanes. 
Argus, 377; the Swedish, 338. 
Aristocracy, 65, 66, 101, 104, 115, 

119, 174, 175, 188, 199, 238-239, 

250-251, 256, 257, 314, 375. 
Aristocratic republic, republicans, 

314, 321, 352, See also Nobility, 

higher. 
Arcana Ccelestia, 325. 
Archaeology, 20, 235, 265, 423-424. 
Archbishop, 54-55, 70, 72, 74, 78, 

82, 87, 103, 111, 117, 124, 127, 139, 

143, 150, 175, 183, 189, 266-267. 
Architecture, 173, 176, 265-266, 

302-303, 430-431. 
Arctic explorations, 424, Sea, 24; 

Stone Age, 15, 16. 
Ardgard, 54. 
Arlberg, Fritz, 430. 
Armfelt: Charles Gustavus, 308; 

Gustavus Maurice, 352, 354, 356, 

357. 
Army. See Sweden. 
Arnoldsson, Sigrid, 431. 
Aros, East (see Upsala). Aros, 

West (see Westeros), 
Aryan race, 265. See also Indo- 
European. 



Asa, Princess, 40. 
Asa creed, 31-34. 

Asia, 16, 34, 424. 

Askold, 49. 

Aspeboda, 134. 

Astrology, 161, 169, 252, 268, 304, 

Astronomy, 324, 333. 

Asund, Lake, 126; battle of, 151. 

Atland, Atlantica, 263-265. 

Atlantis, 264. 

Atterbom, P. D. A., 380. 

Atterdag. See Valdemar. 

Attundaland, 39. 

Aude, 35. 

Audils, 37-38. 

Auerbach, B., 388. 

Augdof, fortress of, 198. 

Augsburgian Confession, 183. 

August II., elector of Saxony and 

king of Poland. 272, 277-279, 281, 

290, 295, 297, 299. 
August, Prince Nicolaus, 411. 
Aulin, Tor, 390. 
Aune. See Ane. 
Austria: Swedish empire in the 

Baltic provinces, 40, 51-52. 
Austria-Hungary, 172, 223, 245, 

247, 253, 279, 319, 352, 403. 
Avignon, 97. 
Axelsson. See Tott. 
Axtorna, battle of, 168, 169. 
Aztec, 18. 



B 



Bade, 356, 415. 

Bagge, Jacob, 164-166, 167. 

Bailiffs, 88, 103, 104, 106, 107, 109 

114, 137, 138, 150, 151, 197. 
Baltic dominion, 40, 51-52, 55, 57 

164, 199, 229, 249, 292, 312. 
Baltic Provinces, 52, 78, 198-199 

200, 232, 282, 283, 291-292, 307. 
Baltic Sea, 5, 21, 24, 25, 26, 49, 51 

75, 101, 130, 199, 229, 249, 272 

294, 305, 322, 375. 
Ban, Militia, 417; Papal, 77, 94 

121, 126. 
Baner, Sten, 170, 185, 195; Anne 

176; Eric, 131; Gustavus, 185 

195; Per, 195; John, 207-208, 222- 

225 279 
Banner of State, 116, 118, 125, 168. 
Barangoi, 52. 

Barbro, Stigsdotter, 134-135. 
Bark-king, 112. 



INDEX 



441 



Barn-lock, 86. 

Barocco, 261, 321, 353. 

Bastile, 428. 

Barons, Baronies, 162, 200, 238, 251, 

257 
Bavaria, 193, 210, 211, 222. 
Beauharnais, Eugene, 404. 
Beckstrom, Edward, 412. 
Behm, Sara, 321. 
Bellman, C. M., 345-346, 389, 390. 
Bells, revolt of. See Revolts. 
Belt, Lille, 245-246. 
Belt, Store, 246-247. 
Bender, 287, 293, 294, 295; Kala- 

balik of, 297. 
Benedictine monastery, 235. 
Bengt, Duke, 86. 
Bengtsson, Joens. See Oxensti- 

erna. 
Bentseby, 266. 
Benzelius: Eric the Elder, 266, 

Eric the Younger, 237 note, 266- 

267, 322, 340. 
Benzelstierna. See Benzelius. 
Beowulf, 30, 31. 37. 
Bergh, Richard, 429. 
Bergman, T. O., 346. 
Bergstroem, P. A., 429. 
Berlin, 223, 341. 
Beinadotte, 365, 367, 418, 421; 

Prince Oscar, 415. See also 

Charles XIV. 
Bernard of Clairvaux, 71. 
Bernhard, duke of Weimar, 211, 

214, 216, 217, 221. 
Bervald, F. N., 390. 
Betzelius, J. J., 325, 366, 380. 
Bevaeringstid, 417. 
Bibie, 237; Gothic (see Gothic); 

translations of, 98, 150, 260, 355. 
Bielke, Anna, 127, 132; Gunilla, 

queen, 175; Sten, 170; Ture, 185. 
BieloJesero, 47. 
Bicerkoe, 55. 

Bioern. Swedish kings, 42, 54, 55. 
Biorck, 0.,429. 
Biornstrcem, F. J., 424. 
Biornstierna, M. F. F., 361. 
Birger, Brosa, 76, 77, 79; Jarl, 77, 

78-83, 86, 88; King, 84, 87, 88- 

91, 92; Persson, 89, 97. 
Birgitta, St., 97-99, 100, 130, 154. 
Birka, 42, 55, 71, 75. 
Bishops, 71, 78, 86, 87, 112-113, 127, 

128, 145-146, 183. 
Bjcernson, B., 388, 405. 



Black Death, 94. 

Blanche, queen of Sweden and 

Norway, 93, 97. 
Blanche, August, 389. 
Bleking, 5, 29, 63, 67, 93, 95, 150, 

151, 190, 247,249, 259, 291. 
Blenda, 72. 
Blomstrand, C. W., 423. 
Blot-Sven, 69, 73. 
Blucher, General, 370. 
Bo Jonsson. See Grip. 
Boccaccio, 163, 413. 
Boeclerus, 240. 
Boerhave, 330-331. 
Bcerjesson, John, dramatist, 389; 

John, sculptor, 430. 
Bcettiger, C. V., 389. 
Bogesund, battle of, 126-127. 
Bohemia, 210, 222, 224, 226, 228. 
Bohus, fortress of, 196. 
Bohuslasn, 5, 13, 17, 46, 58, 62, 196, 

229, 247, 249, 254, 307, 308. 
Bologna, 117. 

Bonaparte. See Napoleon. 
Bonde, Charles Knutsson (see 

Charles VIII.); Tord, 111; Gus- 

tavus, 250. 
Bonnier, Eva, 429. 
Borgannses, 107. 
Boris of Russia, 172. 
Bornhceved, battle of , 371. 
Bornholm, 21, 164, 247, 248, 250; 

naval battle of, 168. 
Bosphorus, 49. 
Bosson, Nils. See Sture. 
Bostrcem, C. J., philosopher, 411- 

412, 423. 
Botany, 262, 321, 330, 331-333, 380, 

423. 
Bothnia, Gulf of, 5. 
Bothnia, West, 363. 
Bothniensis, N. O., 183, 185. 
"Bottomless Purse," 112. 
Botvid, St., 58. 
Boucher, 428. 

Bourgeoisie. See Burghers. 
Boye, L., 377. 
Brabant, 237. 
Brage-bowl, 39. 
Brahe, Joachim, 133; Peter, the 

Elder, 154, 162; Ebba, 194, 235; 

Nils, the Elder, 214, 217; Peter, 

the Younger, 231, 232, 240, 250, 

251, 257; Nils, the Younger, 257; 

Eric, 318; Magnus, 374-375. 
Brahestad, 258. 



442 



INDEX 



Brandenburg, 223, 228, 234, 244, 

247, 253, 255; Elector of, 223; 

Great Elector of, 225, 244, 245, 

252. 
Brandsoe, 245-246. 
Brask, Bishop Hans, 125, 128, 139, 

143, 144, 146, 322, 375. . 
Braun, V. A. D. von, 389. 
Braunsberg, 203. 
Bravols, battle of, 41, 56. 
Breitenfeld, battles of. See Leip- 

sic. 
Bremen, 54, 63, 70, 229, 245, 311. 
Bremer, Frederica, 389, 427. 
Brenner, S. E., 233. 
Brennkyrka, battle of , 125, 131. 
Bring. See Lagerbring. 
Bridget, St. See Birgitta. 
Britain, 24, 25, 45, 60. 
British Isles, 60; Museum, 331. 
Broemsebro, peace treaty at, 227. 
Broet-Anund. See Anund. 
Bronitz, battle of, 198. 
Bronze Age, 11, 13, 16-20. 
Brunbeck, battle of, 138. 
Brunkeberg, 139; battles of, 116, 

119. 
Buchow, naval battle of, 168. 
Buddenbrock, M. EL, 316, 317. 
Budget. See Sweden. 
Buff on, 324. 
Bulgaria, 50. 
Bureus, John, 232-235, 
Burghers, 108, 128, 144, 146, 158, 

185, 200, 201, 253. 
Burislev, 75. 
Bvzantium, Byzantine, 22-23, 27, 

"28, 49, 50, 51. 



C 



Cabinet, 373, 403; Swedish (see 

Sweden). 
Cadet School. See Carlberg. 
Calmar. See Kalmar. 
Caloric engine, 387. 
Calvinism, 183, 189. 
Canute the Great, 57, 58, 62. 
"Caps," 316, 319, 320, 337, 344. 
Carlberg, 355. 
Carl. See Charles. 
Carelia, 88, 94. 
Carleby, Old, 360; New, 360. 
Carlen, Emelie, 389, 427. 
Carin Monsdotter, queen, 162, 170- 

173, 177. 



Carlsten, fortress of, 311, 312. 
Carolin Institute, 425. 
Carlsborg, fortress of, 375, 418. 
Carlscrona, navy yards at, 259, 305. 
Carlson, F. F., 393, 398; Ernest, 

424. 
Carlstad, 188, 407. 
Carnage of Stockholm. 128, 129, 

133, 137. 
Cartesius. See Descartes. 
Casijn, 173. 
Caspian Sea, 50. 
Cassander, 236. 
Castellholm, 171. 
Castles, 96, 102, 146, 173, 233, 251, 

266. 
Catechismus, 183, 260. 
Catherine, Countess Palatine, 234, 

239= 
Catherine (queens of Sweden), of 

Saxony-Lauenburg, 155, 156, 157; 

Stenbock, 156, 157, 177, 181; 

Monsdotter (see Carin Monsdot- 
ter); Jagello, 163, 175. 
Catherine II. of Russia, 348, 350, 

351 355-356 
Catholicism, Catholic, 98, 172, 173, 

174, 182-184, 187, 189, 192, 240, 

244, 325, 335. 
Cavendish, 325. 
Cederstrom, O. R.. 374, 378; Gus- 

tavus, 429. 
Celibacy, 79. 
Celsius, Andrew, 321, 333; Olof, 

Senior, 329, 333, 340; Olof, 

Junior, 333-334. 
Celtic swords, 21; tribes, 21. 
Chambers (of the Riksdag), 396, 

398, 399-401, 407. 
Chancellor, of State, 87, 189, 199, 

220, 250 (see also President of the 

Chancerv); king's, 14, 144, 150; 

of the University, 263, 340; the 

Great (see Axel Oxenstierna). 
Chancery, 297, 298; president of 

the, 271, 313, 314, 317, 337. 
Charles (kings of Sweden): VII. 

Sverkersson, 73, 74, 75; VIII. 

Knutsson, 108-114, 121, 339; IX. 

155, 157, 158, 163, 167, 170-174, 

176, 179, 181-191, 204, 222, 249, 

264; X. Gustavus, 239-241, 242- 

249, 251, 277, 314; XL 249-268, 

269, 270-271, 277,391,408; XII. 

182, 264, 267, 268-309, 310, 313, 

322, 326, 334, 338, 343, 356, 364; 



INDEX 



443 



XIII. 348. 350, 352, 353, 356, 362, 
365-374; XIV. 367-373, 374-380, 
382, 383, 404; XV. 391-413, 415. 

Charles, Bishop, 77. 

Charles, Jarl, 77. 

Charles Philip, son of Charles IX., 
190, 194, 198. 

Charles, son of Oscar II., 415. 

Charles V., emperor, 151, 158. 

Charles II. of England, 237. 

Charles's Chronicle, 114. 

Charles Frederic of Holstein- 
Gottorp, 295, 301, 310, 311. 

Charles Peter Ulric of Holstein- 
Gottorp, 316. 

Chauvinism, 261, 264, 321, 346, 433. 

Chemistry, 333, 346, 380, 423, 425. 

Chemnitz, battle of, 224. 

Chicago, 421, 429. 

China, 289. 

Chodkiewitz, 187. 

Christerson, J. C. E., 435. 

Christian (kings of Denmark): I. 
111-113, 116; II. 122, 124-129, 
131, 132, 133, 137, 138, 140, 148, 
151, 158; III. 149, 164; IV. 190, 
196-198. 204, 226-227; V. 254, 
255; VIII. 371-373; IX. 403-404. 

Christian August (Charles A.), 
Prince, 365-367. 

Christian Frederic, Prince. See 
Christian VIII. 

Christiania, 307, 372, 419. 

Christianity, 31, 42; influence of, 
52; introduction of, 53-55, 58; 
opposition to, 58-61. 

Chnstianopel, 190. 

Christine (queens of Sweden), 189, 
194, 204; 196, 204, 220-241, 242, 
262, 302, 314. 

Christine of Denmark, 120. 

Christine of Hesse, 162, 164-165. 

Christopher, kings of Denmark, 
81, and of Sweden, 110, 111, 112. 

Christopher's, King, Land Law. 
See Sweden, State Law. 

Christinehamn, 188. 

Chronica regni gothorum, 117. 

Chronicles, prose, 114, 131; 
rhymed, 80, 114. 

Church, 76, 77, 78, 85, 87, 88, 89, 
111, 115, 117, 125, 140, 141, 142, 
144, 146, 149, 152, 174-176, 183, 
188, 200, 201, 260, 266, 396, 432, 
437; law, 93, 146, 175. See also 
Clergy, Bishops. 



Cimbrian Peninsula, 26, 27. See 

also Jutland. 

Cincinnatus, Order of, 367. 

Cistercians, 71. 

Civil service, 433. 

Clary. See Queen Desideria. 

Clason, I. G., 431. 

Clergy, 93, 104, 108, 117, 139, 143, 
145-146, 156, 158, 183, 185, 186, 
200, 239, 251, 334, 340, 341, 396. 
397, 398-399. 

Codania, Codanian Bay, 25. 

Codex Argenteus, 235-238, 266; 
Bildstenianus, 9; Bureanus, 9. 

Coffee prohibited, 355. 

Coins, 60, 62; of need, 301-302. 

Collard, Claude. 167. 

Colleges, 201, 232. 

Collegia, 118, 230 note. 

Cologne, 117, 236. 

Colonies, Commerce, Communi- 
ties, Constitution. See Sweden. 

Constantinople, 295. 

Constantine Porphyrogenitus, 48. 

Continent. See Europe. 

Copenhagen, 129, 131, 227, 274, 
385, 403; siege of, 247-248; peace 
treaty of, 250. 

Corvey, 53, 54. 

Cossacks, 283, 285. 

Council, Councillors, State (or 
royal), 87, 92, 106, 107, 108, 115, 
116, 120, 122, 128, 183, 184, 185, 
189, 190, 196, 199, 200, 230, 251, 
257, 258, 271, 272, 289, 290, 292- 
293, 298, 300, 301, 310, 313, 314, 
318, 320, 338, 339, 344-345, 350, 
435. 

Council, Town, 116, 126, 128, 165. 

Councillor of Commerce, 337. 

Counties, counts, 162, 200, 238, 251, 
257 

Courl'and, 52, 202, 244, 282. 

Cracow, 244, 278. 

Creutz, G. P., 339, 345. 

Croats, 208. 

Croi, Duke de, 275. 

Cronhamn, J. P., 413. 

Cronstedt, Charles, 295; Olof, 359- 
360. 

Crown lands, 238, 255, 257; restitu- 
tion of, 96, 102, 111, 233, 238, 243, 
256-258 271 

Crown prince', 316, 317, 319, 320 ? 
371, 392, 406, 415, 437. 

Crusell, B. F., 89, 413. 



444 



INDEX 



Crusenstolpe, M. J., 377, 389. 
Crusades, 70, 73, 77, 78, 94, 185. 
Czar (see Russia), Czarina, 289. 
Czarniecki, Stefan, 244. 
Cuno, John C, 326. 



1> 



Dacke "Feud," 150-151. 

Dacke, Nils, 150-151. 

Dag-, 36. 

Dab i berg, Eric, 245-246, 247, 259, 
265-266, 277. 

Dablgren, Frederic Aug., 389. 

Dahlquist, C. G., 390. 

Dal, province of, 5, 107, 308; River, 
5, 138. 

Dalecarlia, Dalecarlians, 5, 16, 105, 
106. 107, 108, 116, 119, 121, 131, 
133-139, 146, 147, 148, 149, 155, 
185, 317, 349. 

Dalin, O. von, 321, 337-339, 343. 

Daedalus Hyperboreus. 322. 

"Daljunker," 147. 

Dal man, V. F., 394. 

Danckwardt, Henric, 311. 

Danes, Danish. See Denmark. 

Danielsson, A., 377. 

Dannebrog, 116. 

Danube, 22, 28, 224, 228. 

Dantzic, 112, 203. 

David, St., 58. 

Dearth, 118, 176, 261. 

Decamerone, 163, 413. 

De Geer. See Geer. 

De la Gardie. See Gardie. 

Delaware River, 232. 

Democracy, Democratic, 64, 65, 66, 
114, 115, 117, 120, 121, 199, 200, 
260, 352, 364. 

Demotika, 297, 299 

Denmark, 6, 10, 12, 13, 21, 29, 30, 
36. 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 52, 53, 
54, 56-57, 58, 60. 62, 63, 70, 72, 
76, 77, 81, 83, 89. 90, 91, 95, 100, 
103, 105, 106, 108, 111, 116, 117, 
120, 121, 122, 124, 125, 126-127, 
128, 131, 133, 135, 136, 148, 149, 
164, 166, 167, 168, 174, 195-198, 
203, 226-228, 244, 245-248, 250, 
253-255, 259, 273-274, 290, 295- 
296, 299, 307, 311, 312, 316, 343, 
345, 348-349, 355, 357, 363, 366, 
367, 368, 371-373, 385-386, 388, 
392, 401, 405, 406, 415, 426, 430. 

Dennewitz, battle of, 370. 



Descartes, Rene, 240-241, 347. 

Desideria, Queen, 382. 

Diderot, 347, 429. 

Diet, 374, 379, 392, 402. See also 
Riksdag and Norwegian Stor- 
thing. 

Dietriechson, Lorenz, 405. 

Dilettantism, 412, 426. 

Diplomacy, 252, 259, 313, 315, 367, 
402, 434. 

Dir, 49. 

Dirschau, 202. 

Ditmarschen, 120. 

Dimitri, 173, 187; false Dimitris, 
187-188. 

Dniepr River, 284, 286, 287; catar- 
acts of the, 48. 

Dcebeln, G. C. von, 358, 360. 

Dcemitz, battle of, 233. 

Dolmens, 13. 

Domalde, 35 

Domar, 36. 

Dorpat, 200, 281, 282; University 
of (see Universities). 

Dortrecht. 237. 

Douglas, L. V. A., 435. 

Drama, 345, 346, 388. 389, 390,412, 
413, 426^27, 431-432. 

Dramatic singers, 390, 413, 431. 

Drontheim, diocese or district of, 
58, 112, 247, 248, 250. 308, 311, 
371. 

Drottningholm, castl<* of. 303. 362. 

Drotsete. Drotset (Kiks-), 87, 91. 
96, 102, 108, 189, 199, 240, 250. 

Duchies, 82, 158, 161, 185-186. 

Duenamuende, 292. 

Dufnses, battle of, 131. 

DUncker, C. H. L., 412. 

Dutch, Dutchman. See Holland. 

Dusseldorf School, 429. 

Dvina, crossing of the, 277. 

Dygve, 36. 



m 



Eadgils. See Audils. 

East Gothland. See Gothland. 

Ebo, 54. 

Ecclesiastics. See Clergy. 

Edda, Eddie songs, 61, 66, 157, 233, 

270, 346; Snorre's, 34, 342. 
Edlund, Eric, 423. 
Edscere laws, 82, 86. 
Education, 117, 201, 232, 260, 379, 
Eger, 211. 



INDEX 



445 



Egil, 37. 

Egino, 68. 

Ehrenstrahl, D. K., 303; School of 
Painters, 303, 428. 

Ehrensverd, Augustinus, 317, 350, 
359; Ch. A., 347, 350-351, 355. 

Eider, River, 402. 

Eidsvold, meeting held at, 371. 

Eka, Cecilia of, 129, 130. 

Ekeberg, 156. 

Elbing, 203. 

Elective kingdom. See Kingdom. 

Electricity, 324. 

Elfsborg, 152, 166, 174, 188, 196, 
197, 198; New, 311. 

Elfsson, Swan, 135-136. 

Elgaros, battle of, 76. 

Elisabeth of Russia, 316. 

Elizabeth of England, 98, 162. 

Elmblad, Johannes, 431. 

Elsass, 221. 

Elsinore, 93, 247, 368. 

Emigration, 290, 319, 432-433. 

Emund, 63, 67, 68. 

Engelbrekt, Engelbrektsson, 105- 
109, 110, 115, 121, 137, 146; song 
about, 114. 

England, English, 22, 40, 52. 58, 82, 
98, 187, 189, 237, 245, 252, 259, 
283, 299, 305, 306-307, 315, 322, 
334, 349, 355, 356, 357, 363. 369, 
370, 371, 374, 379,388. 

Eric (Danish kings): Ejegod. 69; 
Glipping, 83, 84; Menved, 89, 91; 
of Pomerania(see Swedish King 
Eric XIII.). 

Eric, Norwegian Jarl, 57. 

Eric (Swedish kings): 36; 36-37; 54; 
Edmundsson, 52, 55; Bioernson 
Segerssel, 55-57: 68; Arssel, 69, 
71; IX. (St. Eric), 73-74, 75, 78, 
80, 127, 130; X. 67, 77; XI. 77- 
79, 80; XII. 94-95, 96; XIII. 
101-110; XIV. 155, 157, 158, 161- 
173, 177, 264, 334. 

Eric (Swedish princes): Birgersson, 
83; Magnusson, 87, 89-92; Valde- 
marsson, 83, 84. 

Eric's Chronicle, 80, 85, 89, 114. 

Ericson, J. E., 430. 

Ericsson, Joesse, 106, 137; John, 
387, 424, 425; Nils, 387; Chris- 
tian, 430. 

Eriksgata, 71, 93, 138 

Erimbert, 55. 

Eskil, St., 58. 



Eskil's apartments, 170. 

Essen, H. H. von, 372. 

Esthonia, Esthonians, 39, 52, 75, 
77, 98, 162, 174, 198, 201, 282, 307- 
312 

Ettak, battle of, 84. 

Eugene, Prince of Sweden, 429, 
430. 

Eugenie, Princess, 411. 

Europe, 6, 12, 16, 17, 28, 44, 82, 93, 
189, 204, 229, 235, 242, 245, 254, 
255, 259, 264, 272, 278, 285, 303, 
324, 334, 335, 336, 363, 369, 374, 
376, 381,401,414,424,429. 

Expositions, Scandinavian, 405, 
436; World's, 413, 421, 429. 

Eystein, 38. 

Eyforr, 48. 

Euphemia, Princess, 95. 

Estates, 108, 158, 159, 184, 200, 204- 
205, 238, 240, 249, 256, 271, 278, 
293, 310, 314, 318, 338, 349, 350, 
355, 383, 394, 398-399, 400. 

Ethnography, 265. 



Fahlbeck, P., 424. 

Falkoeping, battle of, 97. 

Fallstedt, I., 430. 

Falster, 247. 

Falun, 138, 152. 

"Father, The," 427 

Father of Swedish Industry, 334. 

Fehrbellin, battle of, 252, 253. 

Femern, naval battles of, 227. 

Ferdinand (emperors): II 193,202; 
III. 221, 228. 

Fero Islands, 371. 

Fersen, Axel von. the Elder, 324; 
the Younger, 351, 366-367. 

Feudalism, 82 

Feud of the Counts, 149. 

Fiefs, 96, 103, 151, 162, 244. 

Finance. See Sweden. 

Fine Arts, Philosophy of, 347. 

Finland, Finns, Finnish, 10, 15, 26, 
35, 36, 48, 55, 71, 73, 75, 78, 81, 
88. 89, 93, 111, 113, 118, 119, 122, 
152, 163, 171, 172, 184, 185, 186, 
187, 188, 193. 199, 200, 220. 231, 
232, 238, 283, 292, 307, 312. 313, 
316, 317, 348, 357-364, 367, 412- 
413, 436, 437: language, 8, 341. 

Finnmark, 378 

Finn woods, 136. 



446 



INDEX 



Fiedrundaland, 39. 

Fiolner, 35. 

Fleming, Clas Ericsson, 184; Clas 
Larsson, 227; Herman, 243, 250. 

Flemish art, 173, 

Flensburg, 104. 

Flower king of the North, 332. 

Fogelberg, B. E., 412, 430. 

Fogel Grip, 232. 

Fogelwick, 113. 

Folk lore, 265, 381. 

Folkungs, 76, 78, 79, 81, 97, 130. 

Folkung dynasty, 80-99. 

Folksriksdag 5 433. 

Forsberg, Nils, 429. 

France, French, 22, 45, 52, 68, 72, 
152, 187, 189, 206, 221, 222, 229, 
233, 245, 252, 255, 270, 271, 315, 
318, 322, 331, 339, 343, 344, 345, 
351, 352, 355, 356, 357. 368, 371, 
372, 382, 388, 414, 422. 428, 429. 

Franciscan, convent, 87; Church 
(see Riddarholm's Church). 

Franconia, 221. 

Franco-Prussian War, 409. 

Franz Joseph's Land, 424. 

Frankfurt, 209. 

Francke, A. H., 289. 

Franks, Frankish, 29, 210, 236, 341. 

Frantz, Albrecht, 216. 

Franzen, F. M., 381, 

Frederic I. of Sweden, 312-317, 318, 
335. 

Frederic (kings of Denmark): I. 
148; II. 164, 166; III. 246, 247; 
IV. 273-274, 290, 295, 299; V. 
316, 317; VI. 367; VII 402. 403 

Frederic of Augustenborg, 367 

Frederic, crown prince of Den- 
mark, 406. 

Frederic of Holstein, 272-274. 

Frederic of the Palatinate, 202, 210 

Frederic (kings of Prussia): I. 296; 
II. (the Great), 318, 319, 343 

Frederic William, the Grand Elec- 
tor. See Brandenburg 

Frederica, Queen, 356. 

Fredericia, fortress of, 245, 248. 

Fredericshall, 308, 322. 

Fredericshamn, 316; peace treaty 
at, 363. 

Fredericstad, 372 

Fredericsten, 308. 

Fredkulla. See Margaret. 

Fred man, 390. 

Free trade, 387, 407-408. 



Freinshemius, John, 240 c 

Frey, 32, 34. 

Friedland. See Wallenstein. 

Fries, Elias, 380. 

Frithiofs Saga. 381. 

Frode (Danish kings): 35, 37. 

Froeding, Gustaf, 428. 

Funen, island of, 227, 246, 248, 386. 

Fuxerna, battles of, 69. 

Fyris, River, 36. 

Fyrisvols, battles of, 36, 37, 56. 



O 



Gad, Dr. Heming, 121, 122, 126 
127, 129. 

Gadebush, battle of, 295, 296. 

Gagarin, governor, 289. 

Gallia, Gallic, 20 

Gardarike, 52. 

Gautland. See Gothaland. 

Gardie, Pontus de la, 167, 174, 187 
235; Jacob, 187-188, 190, 194, 198- 
199, 234, 235; Magnus Gabriel 
234-235, 237, 250, 251, 252, 257 
263. 

Gauts, 28, 29, 30, 31, 47, 105. 

Gauzbert, 54. 

Geatas, 30-31. 

Gene. 138. 

Gegerfelt, K. F. von, 431; William 
429. 

Geijer, Eric Gustavus, 380, 393. 

Geijerstam, Gustaf of, 427. 

Geirthiof, 38. 

Gellandri, 48. 

Gellivara, 7. 

Gemauerthoff, battle of, 282. 

Geology, 324. 325. 

George I. of England, 306. 

George Sand, 388 

Gepidse, 29. 

Gerhard, Count of Holstein, 84. 

Germania, 26. 

Germans, Germany, 12, 21, 22. 54 
58, 75, 80, 81, 83, 85, 90, 93, 96 
97, 98, 100, 101, 104, 105, 106, 116 
122, 127, 132, 150, 151, 152, 158 
168, 189, 190, 193, 202, 203, 204 
205, 210, 213, 214, 221, 222, 223 
224, 226, 228, 229, 230, 233, 239 
244, 252, 264, 287, 299, 303, 307 
321, 346, 370, 380, 385-386, 401- 
405, 414-418, 428, 429; emperor 
122, 151, 158, 193, 202, 209, 210 



INDEX 



447 



211, 212, 224, 228, 235, 245, 281, 
299, 415; Order, 162-163. 

Gestilren, battle of, 77. 

Gestrikland, 5, 16, 138. 

Gibraltar of the North, 359. 

Gil jam, G. F., 436. 

Gisslao, See Hostages. 

Glaciers, 6. 

Glipping. See Eric (Danish kings). 

Glom River, 307, 308. 

Glossarium sviogothicum, 342. 

Glucksburg, 371. 

Gluntarne, 389. 

Goertz, G H., 301-302, 304, 306- 
307, 311. 

Gcetar. See Gauts. 

Gold finds, 22-23.. 

Golumbo, battle of, 244. 

Gospel, 53-55, 104, 146, 207. 

Gothahamn, 116. 

Gotha Canal, 305-306, 322, 375- 
376. 

Gothaland, 5, 14, 19, 24, 25, 28, 42, 
43, 68, 83, 84, 185, 230. 

Gothland, East, 5, 7, 17, 31, 39, 41, 
71, 98, 111, 168, 185, 186; West, 
5, 7, 13, 17, 31, 37, 41, 46, 58, 59, 
61, 67, 68, 70, 76, 77, 83, 84, 96, 
111, 126, 148, 167, 168, 197, 229, 
321, 334, 415; Island of , 6, 21, 22, 
25, 66, 82, 85, 95, 103, 105, 111, 
113, 117, 120, 142, 165, 227, 254, 
304,415. 

Gothenburg. 10, 188, 196, 198, 200, 
226, 229, 231, 232, 249, 254, 335, 
349, 369, 422, 428. 

Gothenburg University. See Uni- 
versities. 

Gotha River, 10, 46, 116, 196, 198. 

Goths, of Continental Europe, 22, 

28, 30, 235-236, 263; of Sweden 
(see Gauts); Teutons, 43; East, 

29, 71; West, 29, 70, 71. 
Gothic, 151, 220, 238, 341, 342; 

Bible, 67 (see further Codex 
Argenteus); invasions, 28; lan- 
guage, 235, 237-238; society, 381; 
glossary, 237. 

Gothic law, West, 66, 67, 70. 

Gotland, 43. 

Gottorp. See Holstein-Gottorp. 

Government. See Sweden. 

Governor, 184, 202, 231, 232. 

Governor-general, 199, 203, 229, 
231, 290, 291, 371; of Norway, 
366. 375, 386, 394-395, 418-419. 



Grabow, Mathilde, 431. 

Grammar, 40. 

Greece, Greek, 49, 50, 52, 235, 237, 
265; myths, 53; church, 288, 355. 

Geer, Louis de, 201, 226-227, 231; 
Louis, 393, 397, 398. 

Gregory, VII. 69; IX. 78. 

Grimm's law, 342. 

Grimsted, 246. 

Grip, Bo Jonsson, 96, 102 

Gripenstedt, J. A., 387, 393, 398, 
403, 404, 407. 

Gripsholm, 96, 107, 152, 155, 163, 
171, 173, 182, 362. 

Gross-beeren, battle of, 370. 

Grubbe, Sam, 411. 

Guadeloupe, island of, 370. 

Gualther, 236. 

Gude, 405. 

Gudlaug, 36-37. 

Guinea, African, 232. 

Gullberg, fort of, 196-197. 

Gullbrandson, Ellen, 431. 

Gunilla, Queen. See Bielke. 

Gurzo, battle of, 202. 

Gustavian period, 337, 339, 343- 
364. 

Gustavus, Adolphus Society, 219. 

Gustavus (kings of Sweden): I. 
Vasa, 125, 126, 128, 129, 130-160, 
161, 165, 168, 170, 173, 177, 178, 
199, 263, 322, 334, 344, 349; II. 
Adolphus, 173, 190, 192-219, 220, 
222, 225, 230, 232, 234, 240, 243, 
250, 258, 314, 344; III. 319-320, 
332, 334, 339, 343-353, 354, 379, 
387,431; IV. Adolphus, 352, 353- 
362, 366, 373, 375, 415. 

Gustavus (princes of Sweden): 
Ercisson (see Vasa); Prince of 
Vasa, 366; Frans G. Oscar, 388, 
389, 413, 436; Oscar G. Adol- 
phus, crown prince, 414, 437. 

Guta, Saga, 67. 

Gutai, 28. 

Gutnic, Guts, 67, 87, 105. 

Gutorm, Jarl, 74, 76. 

Guttones, 24, 25. 

Gylden, J. A. H., 423. 

Gyldenloeve, general, 254; fort of, 
308. 

Gyllenbor<?, Charles, 317, 337; G. 
F., 339, 345. 

Gvllencreutz, Charles G., 268, 302. 

Gyllenhielm, C. C, 187. 

Gyllenstierna, Christine, 127-129, 



448 



INDEX 



130, 131, 140, 142, 147, 149, 155, 
158; John, 256, 312. 
Gymnastics, 380; Central In- 
stitute of, 380. 

H 

Hadrian IV. See Nicolaus of 

Alba. 
Hseffner, 389. 
Hag-bard, 36. 
Hagborg, A., 429. 
Hake, 36-37. 
Hakon (Norwegian kings): 79, 81, 

91, 92; Magnusson, 94-95, 100. 
Hakon, Swedish regent, 68. 
Halberstadt, 224. 
Haleygians, 36. 
Hall, P. A., 428. 
Halland, 5, 13, 43, 84, 93, 95, 167, 

196, 197, 227, 229, 247, 249, 254, 

337. 
Hallen, Andreas, 390. 
Hallstrcem, Ivar, 390; Peter, 427. 
Halmstad, 108, 166, 254. 
Halsten, 68, 70. 
Hamburg, 54, 63, 70, 81, 82, 83; 

peace treaty of, 319. 
Ham mar by, 332. 
Handbook. See Ritual. 
Hanover, 299, 311. 
Hans. See John II. 
Hansa, Hanseatic, 81-82, 101, 103, 

104, 116, 132. 
Hansson, Ola, 427. 
Haraker, battle of, 112. 
Harald, king of Denmark, 56. 
Harald (kings of Norway): Fair- 
hair, 55; Hardrade, 68. 
Harald, Hildetand, king of Sweden 

and Denmark, 41, 51. 
Hare's Leap, 6. 
Hartekamp, 331. 
Hartelius, T J., 424. 
Hartmansdorff , J. A. von, 383, 384- 

385. 
Hasselberg, Peter, 430. 
"Hats," political party, 316, 317, 

319, 320, 337, 338. 
Havamal, 157. 
Havel River, 206, 
Heathen Revival, 59-61. 
Hedberg, Frans, 389; Thor, 427. 
Hedenblad, Ivar, 431. 
Hedenstierna, A., 428. 
Hedin, Sven, 424. 



Hedlund, S. A., 428; Hans, 431. 
Hedvig, queen of Denmark, 100. 
Hedvig, Eleonore, of Sweden, 243, 

249, 253, 255, 271, 299. 300; 

Elisabeth Charlotte, 366. 
Hedvig, Sophie, Princess, 269, 310. 
Heidenstam, V. von, 427. 
Heimskringla, 31, 33-41, 265. 
Heir-apparent, 316-317, 365-3(6, 

367, 368, 420. 
Heinsius, 240. 
Helga. See Olga. 
Helge. See Oleg. 
Helge, Danish king, 38. 
Hellquist, C. G., 429. 
Helsingborg, 290, 336; battle of, 

291, 296. 
Heinrich (the Lion), 75. 
Helsingfors, 152, 317; battle of, 

316; University of (see Uni- 
versities). 
Helsingland, Helsings, 5, 138, 317, 

361; regiment of, 360-361. 
Helsingcer. See Elsinore. 
Hessleholm, battle of, 91. 
Helvig, Queen, 84. 
Henric, St., 73, 75. 
Herger, 54. 
Herjedal, 5, 227. 
Herredag (-ar), 88. 
Herschel, 324. 
Herulians, 28, 29, 48, 66. 
Hervadsbro, battle of, 81, 
Hesse, 205. 
Heterodoxy, 380. 
Hielmar Lake, 109. 
Hierta: Hans (see Jserta); Lars, 

377. 
Hildebrand, Hans. 423. 
Hildebrandsson, H. H., 424. 
Hillberg, Emil, 431. 
Hillestrcem, Peter, 347. 
Hiortsberg, L., 390. 
Hising, island of, 188, 196. 
Historia de Gentibus Septen- 

trionalibus, 142. 
History, Historians, 11, 24-32, 33- 

34, 44, 46-47, 48, 50, 64, 80, 114, 

142, 232, 321, 833-334, 337-339, 

380, 389, 393, 412-413, 423, 424, 

426. 
Hceckert, J. F., 412, 429. 
Hoegquist, Emelie, 890. 
Hceijer, B. C. H., 347, 356, 380, 

411. 
Hcejer, Nils, 424; Magnus, 424. 



INDEX 



449 



Hosrberg, Peter, 347. 

Hcerningsholm, 176, 177, 178, 179, 
181. 

Hoejentorp, 197, 336. 

Hofva, battle at, 83. 

Hog-land, naval battle at, 348. 

Holaveden (Holavid), battle at, 
111. 

Holland, 12, 198, 201, 226, 227, 232, 
236-237, 245, 247. 248, 252, 253, 
264, 283, 322, 330, 331, 334, 340. 

Hoi mf rid, 58. 

Holmgard, 52. 

Holmger, 78. 

Holmstroem, 233. 

Holstein, 103, 104, 112, 226, 227, 
244, 255, 271. 273, 274, 385, 402, 
405; counts of, 84, 93, 149, 228, 
271 272 

Holst'ein-Gottorp, 243, 295, 301. 

Holy Alliance. 381. 

Holy Virgin, 228. 

Holovzin, battle of, 284. 

Horn: Clas Kristersson, Baron, 
162, 167-168; Henric, 174; Evert, 
198; Gustavus, 207-208, 221-222, 
226; Arvid Bernhard, 272, 278, 
284, 293, 298, 310-311, 312-316, 
337; Rudolph, 282; Jacob, 318. 

Hotuna, play at, 90-91. 

Hoya, counts of, 149. 

Huet, 240. 

Hugleik (O. E. Hygelac): Swedish 
king, 36; Danish king, 38. 

Humor, 233, 346, 389, 390, 428. 

Hungary, 68, 245, 299, 322. 

Husaby, 58, 62. 

Hvasser, Elisa. 413. 

Hvin. See Tiodolf. 

Hygelac. See Hugleik. 



Iaroslaf, 48, 51, 62. 

Ibn, Fosslan, 50. 

Ibsen, H., 405, 431. 

Iceland, Icelanders, Icelandic, 33, 
52, 56, 60-61, 93, 235; language, 
9; sagas, 40, 52, 67, 297; scalds, 
sagamen, 60-61. 

Iddefjord, 322. 

Ifvarsson, Charles, 407. 

Igor, 48, 51. 

Ihre, John, 321, 339-342. 

Illrade. See Ingiald. 

Imports. See Sweden. 



Imperial army: Imperialists, 202, 

203, 209, 216, 217, 221, 224, 225, 

228; crown lands, 210, 225. 
Indelningsverk, Indelta, 258, 408, 

417. 
Indensalmi, battle of, 358. 
Indians, 232. 

Indo-European language, 8. 
Industry, 176. 
Inge (Swedish kings): the Elder, 

68-70, 72; the Younger, 70. 
Ingeborg, duchesses, 91, 92; 

princesses, 58, 78, 80, 89, 415. 
Ingegerd, Princess, 61-62; Queen, 

76. 
Ingermanland (Ingria), 174, 199, 

231, 273, 274, 282, 307, 312. 
Ingemar, 84. 

Ingiald, Illrade, 39-40, 42, 64. 
Ingria. See Ingermanland. 
Ingbar. See Igoe. 
Innocent III., 77. 
Interchanging dynasties, 74-79. 
Intelligence party, 408, 410. 
Interdict. See Ban. 
Iron Age, 11, 19, 20-24. 
Isala, 135. 
Isborsk, 47. 
Isiaslaf, 68. 

Italy, Italians, 22, 98, 106, 121, 236. 
Ivar, Master, 131. 
Ivar, Vidfamne, 40, 51. 
Ivarsson, Ivar, of Stroemstad, 170. 



Jacob. See Anund Jacob. 
Jacobi, Petrus. SeeSunnanvseder. 
Ja3gerhorn, G. H., 359-360; J. A., 

348. 
Jserta, Hans, 365. 
Jagello. See Catherine. 
Jansson, Eugene, 429. 
Jankowitz, battle of, 228, 239. 
Japhet, 263. 
Jarl, jarls, 42, 57-58, 74, 87; of the 

realm, 74. 
Jaroslaf. See Iaroslaf. 
Jedvard, 73. 

Jemtland, 5, 63, 70, 227, 308, 311. 
Jerusalem, 97. 
Jesuits, 175, 183, 184. 
Joen keeping, 120, 230. 
Joens, Bengtsson. See Oxen- 

stierna. 
Jcesse, Ericsson. See Ericsson. 



db50 



INDEX 



John, archbishop, 75; duke, 186, 

189, 197; prince, 72. 
John (kings): I. 77; II. Hans, 119- 

120, 122, 130-131; III. 155, 157, 

158, 163, 169, 170-172, 173-176, 

180, 182, 186, 188, 235. 
John, Casimir, count of Pala- 

tinate-Zweibrucken, 239. 
John, Casimir, king of Poland. 

See Vasa. 
Johannes, Magni (Johannes 

Magnus), 114. 142-143, 263. 
Jolin, J. C, 389. 
Jomsborg, 56, 
Jordanes, 29, 34, 44, 263. 
Jornandes. See Jordanes. 
Jorsalafare. See Sigurd. 
Jorund, 36-37. 
Josephine, Queen, 382. 
Josephsson, J. A., 389, 413; Ernst. 

429. 
Juel, Niels, 253, 254. 
Justinian, 28. 
Jueterbogk, battle of, 228. 
Jutland, Jutes, 26. 30, 81, 37, 43, 

131, 132, 226, 245, 248, 386. 
Junius, Franziskus, 237. 
Juutas, battle of, 359, 360. 

K 

K^epplingeholm, Massacre of, 

101. 
Kagg. Lars, 250. 

Kalabalik of Bender. See Bender. 
Kalloe, 132. 
Kalmar, 93, 101, 116, 122, 132, 133, 

190; Nyckel, 232; Recess of, 119; 

Union of (see Union). 
Kalmucks, 288. 
Kamenski, M. K.. 361. 
Kansler. See Chancellor. 
Kant, 324, 347. 
Karelen. See Carelia. 
Karin. See Carin. 
Karl. See Charles. 
Karlberg. See Carlberg. 
Karleby, 71; see also Carleby. 
Karlskrona. See Carlskrona. 
Karlsson. See Carlsson. 
Karlson, Valfried, 431. 
Karlstad. See Carlstad. 
Kasan, 288. 

Katarina. See Catherine. 
Keksholm. See Kexholm. 
Kerkholm, battle at, 187. 



Kellgren, J. H , 345. 

Kettilmundsson, Mattias, 91, 92. 

Kettilsson, Eric, 97. 

Kexholm, 174, 188, 199, 292. 302. 

Key, Emil, 407; E. A. H., 424. 

Kief, 46, 49, 59. 

Kiel, 371; Bav of (see Skiel). 

Kierulf, Halfdan, 405. 

Kingdom, elective, 64, 65, 310; 

hereditary, 65, 150, 151, 186, 189, 

190, 310. 
"KingMartha." SeeLeijonhufvud. 
Kjellberg, F.. 430. 
Klercker, Charles N., 358. 
Klingspoe, W. M., 358. 
Klusina, 188. 

Knapnoefde. See Ragnvald. 
Kneroed, peace treaty of, 198. 
Kniephausen, Dodo von, 214, 216, 

218. 
Knights, 200. 
Knightly Chapter (see Riddar- 

holm); orders, 318. 
Knorring, Sophie von, 389, 427. 
Knud. See Canute. 
Knut (Swedish kings), Ericsson, 

74-76; the Tall, 78, 81. 
Knut, Folkung, 81; Bishop, 108; 

Master, 141-143. 
Koenigsmarck, von, H. C, 236, 

258; O. W., 258. 
Koch, Axel, 423. 
Koeping, 107. 
Koerling, Aug., 431. 
Kol, king (Eric Arsael), 69, 73; 

pretender, 75. 
Kolbragnna. See Anund Jacob. 
Kollandsoe, 69 
Kommunalstasmmor, 395. 
Konungafrid, 86. 
Konghsell, Kungkaell, 62, 69. 
Kopparberg, 105, 133 
Krakow, Morton, 196-197. 
Kreuger, Nils, 349. 
Kristian, Kristiern See Christian. 
Kristina. See Christine. 
Kristofer. See Christopher. 
Krivitchi, 47. 
Kronberg, Julius, 429, 
Kronborg, fortress of, 247, 248. 
Krusenstierna, J. E. von, 435. 
Kyrkomcetet, 396. 



Laaland, 246. 

Labor question, 418, 433. 



INDEX 



451 



Lacroze, M., 341. 

Ladoga, Lake, 199. 

Ladugardsland, battle of, 124. 

Ladulas (Barn-lock). See Magnus. 

Laen, 7, 231, 395. 

Lagerbielke, Gustavus, 407. 

Lagerloef, Selma, 427. 

Laholm, 84. 

Lallerstedt, E., 431. 

Landskrona (in Sweden), battle 
of, 254 (in Finland), 88. 

Landsting, 395-396, 399, 407. 

Landstorm, 417. 

Landtmanna party, 407-408, 410, 
416. 

Landtraarskalk, 200, 407. 

Landtvaern, 417. 

Lange, Lorenz, 289. 

Langeland, 246. 

Languedoc, 167. 

La Place, 324. 

Lapland. Lapmark, Laps, 5, 10, 15, 
16. 104, 330; language, 8,341; 
"Divine service in the Lap- 
mark," 429. 

Lappo, battle of. 358. 

Lars. See Laurentius. 

Larsson, Thomas, 195; Liss Olof, 
407; Marcus, 412, 429; Carl, 429. 

Latin, 98, 117, 142, 220, 265, 328. 

Lauenburg, 402, 405. 

Laurentius. See Andreae and 
Petri. 

Laval, Gustavus de, 425. 

Lavoisier, 325. 

Laws. See Sweden. 

League, Catholic, 189. 

Lech, battle of, 210. 

Leckoe, 187, 251. 

Leczinski (see Stanislav), 427. 

Leffler, A M. (Mittag-), 424; Anne 
Charlotte, 427. 

Leibnitz, 266. 

Leijonhufvud, 282 note; Margaret 
(see Margaret, queens of 
Sweden); Martha (King Martha), 
155; Sten, baron, 162, 170. 

Lei re, 38. 

Leipsic, 117, 213, 224, 288; first bat- 
tle of, 206-209; second battle of, 
225-226, 

Lena, battle of, 76. 

Lenasus, J., 239. 

Lenngren, Anne Marie, 346. 

Leonidas, the Swedish, 224. 

Leopold, C. G., 345. 



Leopold I., emperor (1640-1705), 
225. 

Leuchtenberg, 382 
Levertin, Oscar, 427, 428. 
Lewenhaupt, 282 note; A. L., 282, 

283, 284, 285-287; C. E., 316, 317. 
Leyden, 331. 
Libau, 203. 
Liberty, song of, 114; period of, 

310-342, 320-321. 
Libraries, 99. 
Lidner, Bengt, 346. 
Liesna, battle of, 285. 
Liewen, H. H. von, 298-299. 
Liljefors, Bruno, 429. 
Lindberg, A., 430. 
Lindblad, A. F., 389; Otto, 389, 

413. 
Lindeberg, A., 377. 
Linden, Mathilde, 431. 
Lind, Jenny, 390, 413. 
Lindholm (-en) in Scania, 97; in 

Upland, 130. 
Lindskiold, E., 270. 
Ling, P. H., 380, 381. 
Linkcepins-, 71, 77, 80, 85, 108, 112, 

121, 185, 186, 195; conference at, 

72. 
Linnaeus (von Linne), Charles, 327- 



Lithuania, 284. 

Literature. See Sweden. 

Liturgia, 175-176, 183, 

Liuksiala 173. 

Livonia, Livonians, 162, 163, 187, 

198, 202, 203, 223, 231, 250, 258, 

273, 277, 281, 282. 283, 290-291, 

307, 312. 
Lober Brook, 207. 
Loccenius, John, 240. 
Locke, 347. 

Lodbrok. See Ragnar. 
Loedoese, 83, 84, 111; New, 116, 152, 

196, 197. 
London, 267, 323, 326, 327, 331, 334, 

340. 
Longobardians, 28, 29. 
Lord, 200. 

Lothringia, 162, 169. 
Louis le Debonnaire (the Pious), 

48, 53; XIV. 235, 252, 254-255. 

259, 280, 305; XVI. 351-352, 367. 
Louise, Princess, 406; Queen, 392 5 

411. 
Louise Ulrica, Queen, 217, 338. 
Lovisa, See Louise. 



452 



INDEX 



Lubeck, 75, 81, 82, 85, 122, 132, 140, 
148, 165, 166, 168, 316, 371. 

Lucidor, Lasse (Johansson), 233. 

Lulea, 266. 

Lubetch, 49. 

Ludvig Rudolph of Brunswick, 
324. 

Luitprand, 48. 

Lund, 10, 70, 111, 250, 304, 307, 322, 
328, 329, 337, 340; battle of, 254; 
peace treaty at, 255; University 
of (see Universities). 

Lundberg, Gustavus, 428; Theo- 
dor, 430. 

Lundquist, C. F., 431. 

Luther, Lutheran, 98, 140, 183, 184, 
186, 190, 204, 214, 312, 327, 368, 
435. 

Lutzen, battle of, 213-219; battle- 
field of, 279, 281. 

Lybecker, George, 283, 285. 

Lymphatic ducts, 262. 



M 



Maecenas of Sweden, 250. 

Machiavelli, 121. 

Maelar, Lake, 5, 10, 55, 71, 96, 107, 
112, 127, 156, 163. 

Magdeburg, 205-206. 

Magnetism, 324. 

Magnus (Danish princes): M. Nils- 
son, 71; M. Henricsson, 72-74. 

Magnus, Bishop, 148. 

Magnus (kings of Norway): M. 
Barfod, 69; M. Lagaboete, 83, 

Magnus (kings of Sweden): M. 
Ladulas, 82-88, 89, 90; M. Erics- 
son, 84, 92-95, 97; (princes of 
Sweden): Magnus Birgersson, 
92; M. Vasa, 155, 157, 158, 163- 
164, 169. 

Magog, 263. 

Main, River, 209. 

Malaspina, 183. 

Malebranche, 266. 

Malmstrcem, B. E., 389. 

Malmce, 10, 411. 

Manheim. See Atland. 

Manderstrcem, Count, 393, 401, 
404. 

Marsk, 87, 102, 108, 249. 

Margaret, missionary to the Laps, 
104. 

Margaret Fredkulla, Princess, 69, 
71. 



Margaret (queens of Sweden), 89; 

Valdemarsdotter, 95, 96, 98, 100- 

105, 120, 371; Leijonhufvud, 155, 

156, 177, 178. 
Margaret of Valois, 162. 
Maria, queen of Sweden, 189. 
Marie Antoinette, Queen, 367. 
Marie Eleonore, Queen, 234. 
Marlborough, 280. 
Mariefred, 118, 133. 
Mariestad, 188. 
Marna3S, 136. 
Masudi, 50. 

Matchless, The, 165-166. 
Martha, Dame, 100. 
Matern, J. A., 288. 
Massilia, 24. 
Mars, 31. 

"Master Olf," 427. 
Materialism, 412, 432. 
Mathematics, 270, 322. 
Mattias, Bishop, 128. 
Maximilian of Bavaria, 193, 210, 

211. 
Mazarin, 220. 
Mazeppa, 283, 285, 286. 
Mayence, 209. 
Mechtild, Danish queen, 81. 
Mecklenburg, 95, 97, 168, 210, 223, 

244, 295, 357. 
Mediaeval. See Middle Ages. 
Medelpad, 5, 24, 303. 
Medical science, 262, 331, 333, 424 5 

425. 
Meibom, 240. 
Melanchthon, 204. 
Melen, Berndt von, 142, 148. 
Memel, 203. 
Menuet, Peter, 232. 
Mendelssohn, 389. 
Meri, 47. 
Messenius, John, 232; Arnold J., 

240; Arnold, the Younger, 240. 
Metals, 15, 16, 116. 
Mexico, 18, 404. 
Middle Ages, 45, 64-129, 134, 192, 

400. 
Michaeli, Louise, 413. 
Midsummer, Midnight, sun, 7„ 
Miklagard, 52. 
Mines, miners, mine owners, 123, 

144, 152, 200-201, 305, 323, 335; 
Mining, College of, 304-305, 322, 

323 
Ministers, church, 175, 183, 253, 

287, 304, 327, 337, 396; state 



INDEX 



453 



(secretary), 365, 401, 407, 416; 
of foreign affairs, 373, 393. 435; 
of justice, 393, 397, 409, 435; of 
finance, 393, 435, 436; of ec- 
clesiastics, 393, 409, 436; of war, 
408, 435; of civil service, 409; 
of marine, 435; of interior, 435. 

Missionaries, 53-55, 58, 104. 

Mi tan, 202, 282. 

Mcerner, Otto, 367-368. 

Mohilev, 284. 

Molin, Ambjoern, 289; J. P., 412, 
430. 

Monitor, 387. 

Monrad, D. G., 404. 

Montelius, Oscar, 423. 

Mora, in Dalecarlia, 136-138, 140; 
Stone of. in Upland, 92, 95. 

Moravia, 226, 228. 

Morseus, Maria Elis, 332. 

Mons Bengtsson. See Natt och 
Dag. 

Moscow, 172, 188, 284, 288. 

Moss, Convention of, 372-373. 

Motzfeldt, K., 406. 

Muller, J. B., 289. 

Munck, Lady Ebba, 415. 

Munich School of Painters, 429. 

Muonio, River, 363. 

Music, 263, 346, 380, 382, 388, 389- 
390, 412, 413, 431 ; national folk, 
431. 

Mutiny, 188. 

Mysticism, 98, 99, 161, 169, 321, 354, 
356. 

Mythology, classical, 31, 265. 
Swedish (see Sweden). 

Nakskov, 246. 

Namur, 93. 

Narva, 174, 282; battle of, 274-277; 

river, 275. 
Napoleon I., 356, 357, 362, 367, 368, 

369-371. 
Napoleon III., 404, 406. 
Nassau, 415. 
Nathorst, H. O., 423; A. C, 424 

note. 
Natt och Dag, Mons Bengtsson, 

109; Nils Bosson (see Sture); 

Ake Hansson, 122 (see also 

Sture). 
Nerigon, 25. 

Nerilce, 5, 13. 39, 97, 116. 
Nerschinsk, 289. 



Nestor, 46-47, 49, 52. 

Netherlands, 98, 152, 189. 

Neva, 78, 93, 289. 

New Church, 325. 

New Rhymed Chronicle, See 
Charles Chronicle. 

New School, 380-381. 

Newton, 324. 

Nicolaus of Alba, 72. 

Nicholaus II. of Russia, 418. 

Nils Bosson (Natt och Dag). See 
Sture. 

Nils, king of Denmark, 71. 

Nilsson, Mons, 134; Sven, 380; 
Christine, 413. 

Nimwegen, peace treaty of, 254- 
255 

Niord, 34. 

Nithard, 54. 

Nobel, Alfred, 425-426, 

Nobility, Nobles, 76, 86, 87, 88, 92, 
95, 96, 102, 105, 108, 110, 113, 115, 
117, 119, 120, 126, 127, 128, 141, 
148, 150, 151, 158, 166, 169, 173, 
174, 185, 186, 193, 199, 200, 231, 
233, 238, 239, 243, 250, 255, 256, 
258, 271, 302, 304, 310, 314, 349, 
350, 352, 357, 365, 367, 383, 384, 
385, 396, 397, 398, 416; higher, 
200, 251, 256-257, 314; lower, 
200, 251, £53, 256, 257, 314, 
speaker of (see Landtmarskaik), 

Noerdlingen, battle of, 221, 223. 

Nceteborg, 282. 

Norcopensis. See Nordenhielm. 

Nordanskogs, 5. 

Nordberg, G., 288. 

Nordblom, J. E. 

Nordenflycht, Hedvig Charlotta, 
339, 

Nordenhielm, Andreas, 269, 270. 

Nordenskiold, Baron, 424. 

Nordgren, Ellen, 404, 406, 431. 

Nordraak, 405. 

Nordstroem, Charles, 429. 

Norman, Normandie, 48, 52. 

Norman, Georg, 149; F. V. L., 390. 

Noren, Adolph, 423. 

Norrby, Sceren, 122, 139, 140, 142. 

Norrkceping, 190, 320. 

Norrland, 5, 6, 7, 14, 24, 43, 107, 
138, 193, 266, 362. 

North, the Scandinavian, 16, 21, 
29, 35, 42, 43, 44, 52, 53, 54, 56, 59, 
60, 61, 94, 96, 101, 104, 114, 225, 
248, 263, 305, 330, 434, 438. 



454 



INDEX 



North Pole, 424. 

North Sea, 5, 10, 196, 198, 322, 375. 

North Star, Order of the, 318. 

Northeast Passage, 424. 

Northern language, common, 99; 
oldest form, 8, 22; tribes, 23; in- 
dustrial arts, 23; literature, 36, 
38, 41. 

Northmen, 45, 52, 53, 59. 

Norway, Norwegians. 5, 6, 10, 13, 
21, 25, 33, 36, 38, 41, 43, 45, 52, 
55, 57, 58, 60, 61, 62, 63, 67, 68, 
69, 70, 75, 76, 79, 83, 89, 90, 91, 
92, 94, 95, 96, 100, 111, 142, 147, 
164, 166-167, 174, 247, 307, 308, 
311, 348. 357, 362, 366, 370, 371- 
374, 375, 386, 393-395, 402, 404, 
405, 418-421, 430; governor-gen- 
eral question, 386, 393-395, 418- 
419; constitution, 373-374, 393; 
cabinet, 373, 394-395, 402; con- 
sular and diplomatic service, 
419, 420, 437; defence, 419; flag, 
386, 419; culture, 405; govern- 
ment, 373; king, 373-374; Minis- 
ster of State. 419; railways, 421; 
royal title, 386; Storthing, 373, 
379, 386, 393-394, 406, 419, 420, 
425-426; viceroy, 393. 

Novgorod, 47, 52, 62, 188, 190. 

Nuremberg, 211-212, 225. 

Nurmanni, 47. 

Ny keeping, 82, 84, 172, 190, 239, 
302; Feast of, 90; Restitution of, 
102. 

Nyslott, 316. 

Nystroem, Alfred, 430. 



O 



Oder, River, 21, 27, 224, 279. 
Odin, 31-32, 34, 35, 37. 
CEdman, A., 431. 
(Eland, island of, 5, 21, 22, 111, 254; 

naval battles of, 165-166, 167- 

168, 350. 
CErbyhus, 171. 

(Erebro, 109, 146, 150, 174, 368, 387, 
CEsel, island of, 164, 227. 
CEstberg, Caroline, 431. 
(Esterlind, A., 429. 
Ohio, 7. 

Ohthere. See Ottar. 
Olaf (Norwegian kings) Tryggvas- 

son, 57-58; Haraldsson, 61-62, 

67; Hakonsson, 100. 



Olai, Ericus, 114, 117. 

Olaus, Petri (Master Olof). See 

Petri. 
Oldenburg, 366; counts of, 149, 

367.- 
Old Chronicle. See Eric's Chron- 
icle. 
Old Danish, 8, 22 99. 
Old English, 237, 342. 
Old High German, 342. 
Old Icelandic. See Old Norse. 
Old Norse language, 8, 22, 99, 341, 

342; literature, 32, 232, 270; 

mythology, 265. 
Old Swedish language, 8, 9, 22, 24, 

48, 49, 99, 342; literature, 8, 9, 

66-67, 80, 98. 114, 121; laws, 48, 

66-67, 380, 39L 
Oleg, 48, 49, 51. 
Olga, 48, 51. 

Oliva, peace treaty of, 250. 
Oligarchy, 309. 
Olof (Swedish kings), 40-41, 42, 54, 

55; Skoetkonung, 52, 57-62; 

Nseskonung, 69, 70. 
Olsson, Lars, 138. 
Olustra, battle of, 78. 
Opposition, Conservative, 383, 384; 

Liberal, 376-378, 379, 380, 382, 

383, 384. See also Intelligence 

Party. 
Orange, 259, 392. 
Oravais, battle of, 358, 360-362. 
Ordeals, 82. 
Orientalists, 333, 340. 
Ornses, 134. 
Orosius, 43. 

Oscar Fredericsborg, 41.8. 
Oscar (kings of Sweden): I. 382- 

390, 391, 411; II. 411, 414-438. 
Oscar, Prince. See Bernadotte. 
Oslo, 92. 
Ottar, 37-38. 
Otto, Bishop, 128. 
Oxenstierna, Joans Bengtsson, 112- 

113; Axel, 199, 203, 204, 220-221, 

222, p 226, 229, 230, 233, 234, 239, 

242, 312, 375, 421; John, 229; 

Bengt, 259, 271; John Gabriel, 

345; Oxford, 340. 

P 

Palaeolithic Civilization, 12. 
Palatinate-Zweibrucken, 189, 239 9 
290. 



INDEX 



455 



Pappenheim, 203, 207-209, 213, 
214, 217-218. 

Paris, 118, 305, 331, 340, 368, 371; 
expositions. 413, 421, 429; peace 
treaties, 362-363, 369, 388; Uni- 
versity, 118, 340. 

Parliament, Parliamentary Re- 
form, 108, 111, 376, 379, 384-385, 
396-401. 

Passage-graves, 13. 

Patriotism, 104, 114, 120, 130, 131, 
200, 201, 235, 244, 247, 248, 250, 
258, 309, 352, 358, 367, 398, 434. 

Patkul, J. R., 312, 

Pau, 368. 

Pauli, Emerentia, 196-197; George, 
429; Hanna (Hirsch-P.), 429. 

Peasant. See Yeoman. 

Peasant High Schools, 423. 

Peasant-king, 188. 

Peene, River, 312. 

Peipus, Lake, 199, 282. 

Pentinger, Konrad, 149. 

Peringskiold, John, 265. 

Pernau, 201, 292. 

Person, Andrew, 133-134; Arendt, 
134-135; Gceran, 162, 170. 

Peter Frisk, 299. 

Peter's Pence, 72. 

Peterson, Adrian, 431. 

Peter the Great, 272-273, 277, 282, 
283, 284, 285, 287, 288, 289, 296, 
306, 307, 311, 316. 

Petri, Olaus (Master Olof), 86, 114, 
128, 141, 150; Laurentius, 141, 
150, 175, 177, 183; Laurentius P. 
Gothus, 175. 

Peru, 336. 

Philadelphia Exposition, 421. 

Philip, king, 70; Folkung, 81°, 
Duke (see Charles, Princes of 
Sweden). 

Philipstad, 188. 

Philology, 67, 237, 265, 266, 320, 
339-342, 380, 388, 423. 

Philosophy, 240-241, 321, 327, 340, 
411-412,423. 

Phosphoristic School, 380-381. 

Physical science, 322, 324-325, 333, 
423, 425. 

Physiology, 325. 

Piccolomini, General, 221, 225. 

Pillau, 203. 

Piper, Charles, 271, 286, 287, 288, 
292; Louise Sophie, 366-367. 

Pitea, 411. 

XX 



Plague, 94, 124, 176, 290, 322. 

Plato, 264. 

Platen, Baltzar B. von, 365, 371, 
375. 

Pliny, the Elder, 25. 

Poland, Polish, 98, 143, 163, 164, 
174, 175, 182, 183, 184, 185, 187, 
199, 202, 222, 243-245, 247, 250, 
252, 273, 278-279, 281, 282, 283, 
284, 290, 292, 294, 295, 297, 313, 
401. 

Polar Circle, 7, 8; Sea, 93. 

Polhammar. See Polhem. 

Polhem, Christopher, 267, 302, 304- 
306, 322, 326, 334, 375, 424; Eme- 
rentia, 326. 

Poliane, 49. 

Polotsk, 47. 

Pomerania, 5, 7, 205, 224, 229, 232, 
245, 255, 258, 294-295, 299, 302, 
312, 319, 336, 357, 363, 371. 

Pomponius Mela, 25. 

Ponte Corvo, 368. 

Pope, 69,77, 78, 94, 97-98, 117, 121, 
124, 126, 144 

Porosalmie, battle of, 350. 

Porphyrogenitus. See Constan- 
tine P. 

Portugal, 45. 

Posse, Knut, 116, 118; Arvid, 407. 

Potatoes, 336. 

Powers, Continental, 187, 248, 250, 
252, 319, 320, 344, 345, 372, 374, 
378, 403, 418. 

Prague, 117, 210, 222, 228, 236, 258. 

Press, 231, 365, 376-377, 383, 384, 
396, 397, 403, 404, 407, 428; law, 
434-435. 

Pretenders, 55-56, 74, 75, 78, 147, 
187-188. 

Prisons, 382. 

Priestley, 325. 

Priests, 98, 144. 

Primas of Sweden, 70. 

Printz, John, 232. 

Prokopios, 28, 31. 

Propeller, 387. 

Prose Chronicle. See Chronicle. 

Protective system, 406, 416; pro- 
tectionists party, 416. 

Protestantism, 175, 182-184, 189, 
192, 202, 204, 221, 279, 281-282, 
325. 

Province, Provincial, 5-6, 64-65, 
66, 86, 89, 93, 105, 149, 249; laws 
(see Sweden). 
20 



456 



INDEX 



Prussia, 172, 202, 203, 222, 223, 244, 

296, 299, 811, 345, 349, 352, 370, 

385-386, 403. 
Pruth, River, 294. 
Pskof, 198. 
Ptolemy, 27. 
Pufendorff, S., 237. 
Puke, Eric Kettilsson (see Kettils- 

son); Eric (Nilsson), 107, 110. 
Pulkkila, battle of, 358. 
Pultowa, battle of, 285-286, 289, 

290, 291, 292, 294, 303. 
Pyk, Louise, 431. 
Pyteas, 24. 

<l 

Quaternary period, 12. 
Qvidinge, 366. 

R 

R^EFSN^S, 133. 

Ragnar, Swedish king, 41-42; R. 

Lodbrok, sea-king, 41-42. 
Ragnvald, jarl, 58, 61-62, 67; king, 

70-71; prince, 70. 
Railways. See Sweden. 
Ram berg, 226. 
Rankhytta, 133. 

Rantzau, Daniel, 168; George, 291. 
Rappe, A. E., 435. 
Raseborg, 113, 129. 
Rashutt, 327. 
Ratan, 363. 

Ratenau, battle of, 252. 
Ravius, 240. 
Realism, 405, 426-427. 
Reform Banquet, 384. 
Reform, Parliamentary. See Par- 
liament. 
Reformation, Reformers, 98, 140- 

146, 150, 153, 339; language, 9. 
Reformed Church, 312. 
Regensburg, 224. 
Rehnskiold, C. G., 284, 285-286, 287, 

288. 
Renaissance, 153, 157, 261; Swedish 

Castle, 173, 431. 
Renat, J. G., 288. 
Renata of Lothringia, 162, 169. 
Restitution. See Crown Lands. 
Rettvik, 136. 

Reuterholm, G. A., 353-356. 
Reval, 162, 172, 174, 292. 
Revolts, 76, 78, 81, 84, 107-108, 121, 

141-143, 146-151, 288, 293, 316- 



317, 344, 369; of Bells, 148-149, 
155. 

Revolution, French, 351, 368, 384, 
428; Swedish, 138, 143, 146, 344, 
345, 349-352, 362, 379. 

Rheims, 54. 

Ribbing, P., 302, 310, 314. 

Richelieu, 220, 224. 

Riddarholm's Church, 87, 90, 96, 
225, 367, 415. 

Riddarhus, The, 166, 200, 256, 268, 
398. 

Ridderstad, C. F., 389. 

Riga, 82, 187, 202, 291-292. 

Rikissa, princess, 87; queen, 71; 
Birgersdotter, 79. 

Riksdag, 88, 108, 115, 117, 124, 140, 
142, 143, 150, 151, 161, 169, 170, 
175, 183-184, 200, 201, 202, 222, 
238, 240, 243, 248, 249, 250, 254, 
256, 257, 258, 271, 293, 298, 310, 
314, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 335, 
336, 338, 340, 344, 345, 348, 349- 
350, 355, 356-357, 365, 368, 369, 
376, 378, 383, 384, 387, 394-395, 
396-401, 403, 406, 407-411, 416- 
418, 420, 433, 435; regulations of 
the, 434. 

Riksdrotset. See Drotsete. 

Riksmarsk. See Marsk. 

Rimbert, Archbishop, 52, 55. 

Ring ("Sigurd Ring"), 41, 51. 

Riswick, peace treaty of, 259. 

Ritual and hymn-book, 175, 183, 
260, 355. 

Rococo, 353. 

Rock-carvings, 17, 18. 

Roeskilde, peace treaties of, 91, 
247. 

Rolf Krake, 38. 

Romanticism (Neo-), 346, 380-381, 
388-389, 405, 427. 

Rome, Roman, 20, 21, 26, 27, 28, 
72, 74, 97, 125, 141, 144, 175, 204, 
263, 265. 

Rosen, von, 282 note; George von, 
412, 429. 

Rosenblad, M., 374. 

Roslagen, 48-49. 

Roslin, Alex., 347, 428. 

Rosstjenst. See Russtienst. 

Rostock, 121, 147, 165. 

Rostof, 47. 

Roth man, Dr., 327-328. 

Royal offices, 87; sanctity, 77, 85; 
title, 84. 



INDEX 



457 



Rud, Otto, 122. 

Ruden, Island of, 205. 

Rudenschiold, Madelaine, 354. 

Rudbeck, 01 of, the Elder, 261-265; 
Olof, the Younger, 380. 

Rudbeckius, J., 262. 

Rudolph, emperor, 172. 

Rug-en, Island, 229, 294, 371. 

Ruhr, River, 236. 

Runeberg, J. L., 364, 388. 

Runes, 8, 21-22, 340. 

Runius, 233. 

Runn, Lake, 134. 

Ruotsi, 48. 

Rurik, 47-49, 51, 52, 187. 

Rus, Rus, 47, 50, 105. 

Russia, Russians, 6, 12, 22, 26, 43, 
46-52, 62, 63, 67, 68, 69, 78, 81, 88, 
94, 105, 112, 118, 119, 122, 143, 
152, 153, 162, 171, 172, 174, 176, 
184, 187, 188, 190, 198, 199, 203, 
244, 250, 272, 273, 274-277, 278. 
280, 282-287, 291-292, 294, 295, 
306, 311, 315, 316, 317, 345, 348- 
349, 350-351, 352, 357-362, 369, 
370, 374, 377, 378, 387-388, 394, 
401, 418, 436; captivity, 287-289; 
language, 8; names, 48. 

Russtienst, Rusttjenst, 86, 143, 162, 
174, 188. 

Rvdberg, Victor, 412, 423. 

Rydboholm, 130. 

Rydelius, Andrew, 337-338. 

Ryssby, 193. 



Sachsen (Saxony )-Lauenburg, 155, 

216. 
Saefstrom, 325. 
Ssetherbey, H., 389. 
Ssetra, 134. 
St. Gallen, 362. 
St. Olaf, Order of, 386. 
St. Peter of Rome, 240, 
St. Petersburg, 88, 282, 283, 285, 

289, 348, 355. 
St. Salvator, Order of, 98. 
Sal a, 152. 
Salestad, 176. 
Salon, French, 428, 429. 
Salmson, EL, 429. 
Salmasius, 236, 240. 
Salvius, A., 229. 
San, River, 244. 
Sandels, J. A., 358, 360. 



Saxo, 51, 57. 

Saxons, Saxonland, Saxony, 29, 38, 

40, 206-208, 211, 213, 222, 223, 
224, 228, 272, 273, 277, 279-282, 
292, 295, 299, 322, 415. 

Scandia, 25. 

Scandinavia, Scandinavian, 14, 16, 

24, 25, 28, 100, 101, 124, 166, 255, 
317, 423, 437; languages, 9, 99, 
166; peninsula, 5, 12, 25, 27, 93, 
312, 325, 371, 421; policy, 247, 
402-406, 415, 437-438; religion, 31. 

Scandinavism, 385-386. 

Scania, 5, 6, 10, 12, 13, 14, 18, 21, 

25, 40, 43, 46, 84, 91, 93, 95, 97, 
105, 111, 167, 195, 226, 247, 249, 
254, 290-291, 307, 325, 336, 344, 
357, 362, 366, 369, 386. 

Scandza, 30, 44. 

Scheele, C. W., 346. 

Schefferns, 240. 

Schleswig, 104, 112, 126, 245, 385, 

386, 402, 404, 405. 
Schluesselburg, 282. 
Schlyter, K. J., 380. 
Schoenstrcem, P., 288. 
Scholander, E. W., 431. 
Schools, school laws, 117, 146, 175, 

393, 423. 
Schueck, H., 428. 
Schuisky, Vassili, 187-188. 
Schwartz, Sophie, 389. 
Schwedenstein, 281. 
Schwerin, von W., 360-361; F. B., 

377. 
Scotland, 208, 405. 
Scylfingas. See Skilfings. 
Secret Committee, 314, 315, 316. 
Seeland, 246-247, 291, 362. 
Sehlstedt, Elias, 389. 
Semiramis of the North, 104. 
Separator, 425. 
Seraphim, Order of the, 318. 
Seven Years' War, of the North, 

164-168; Continental, 319. 
Siberia, 287-289. 
Sigfrid, St., 58. 
Sigismund of Sweden and Poland, 

174, 182-186, 187, 188, 202. 
Signe, 36. 

Signjotr. See Sineus. 
Sigrid Storrada, 57. 
Sigtuna, 35, 62, 68, 71, 75. 
Sigurd, King, 41. 
Sigurd Jorsalafare, 70. 
Siikajoki, battle of, 358-859. 



458 



INDEX 



Silesia, 202, 222, 225, 226, 279, 281- 

282. 

Si I j an, Lake, 136. 

Simon. See Gauzbert and Stenfl. 

Sineus, 47, 48. 

Sjcegren, Otto, 390, 431. 

Skara, 59, 68, 84, 128, 148, 321. 

Skee Finns, 28. 

Skenninge Conference, 78; meet- 
ing, 86. 

Skerry fleet, 350, 351. 

Skialf, 36. 

Skiel (Kiel), Bay of, 226 

Skilflngs, 33, 35, 37, 39, 40. 

Skjoeldebrand, A. F., 374. 

Skokloster, 251. 

Skytte, Johan, 193, 232. 

Slavs, 28, 47-50, 54. 

Sloane, Hans, 331. 

Sni aland, 5, 14, 29, 70, 72, 84, 111, 
126, 133, 150, 166, 195, 315, 291, 
327, 329. 

Smith, S., 431. 

Smolensk, 49, 188, 284. 

Snaphaner, 226. 

Snoilsky, 412, 427. 

Snorre Sturleson, 33, 34, 35, 40, 41, 
52, 265, 349. 

Socialism, 433. 

Scederman, August, 431. 

Scedermanland, 5, 9, 13, 23, 39, 58, 
107, 133, 174. 

Scederkoeping, 116, 183. 

Soblman, Aug.. 403. 

Soop, Eric, 303. 

Sophia (queens of Sweden), 81; 415. 

Sophie Magdalene, queen of Swe- 
den, 343. 

Sound, the, 10, 93, 227; naval bat- 
tle of, 248. 

South Company, 232. 

Spain, Spanish, 45, 97, 209, 221, 
352, 378. 

Sparre, P. G., 389. 

Sparrssetra, battle of, 78. 

Spectator, 338. 

Spitzbergen, 424. 

Sprengtporten, J. M., 344, 350. 

Squire, 106, 131, 200. 

Stade, 295. 

Stadsfullmsegtige, 395. 

Stseket, 124, 125, 131. 

Stagnelius, E. J., 380-381. 

Stanislav of Poland, 279, 281, 290, 
295, 313. 

Starbseck, George, 389. 



Steam hose, 387. 
Stedingk, C. von, 350, 367. 

Stefan, 74. 

Stegeborg, 139, 185. 

Stenbock (see Catherine, queens 
of Sweden), Brita, 156; Gus- 
tavus, Baron, 156, 162, 181; Olof, 
171; Eric, 176-182, 296; Mag- 
dalen (see Sture); Cecilia, 178- 
180; Beatrix, 180; Anne. 181; 
Gustavus, 182; Gustavus Otto, 
250; Magnus, Count, 182, 277, 
284, 290, 291, 294-296. 

Stenfi (Stephan), 58. 

Stenhammar, W., 390. 

Stenkil, 67-68, 70. 

Stensce, 132. 

Stephan of Poland, 174. 

Stellin, 312. 

Steuchius, Archbishop, 340. 

Stiklastad, battle of, 62. 

Stiernhieim, Georg, 233, 235, 237. 

Stiernhcek, 232. 

Stobeus, Chilian, 329. 

Stockholm, 10, 36, 74, 75, 82, 84, 87, 
90, 92, 95, 96, 100, 101, 107, 108, 
109. 112, 116, 119, 121, 124, 125, 
126, 127, 130. 133, 139, 140, 141, 
143, 150, 158, 165, 169, 173, 180, 
186, 190, 193, 199, 231-232, 272, 
313. 317, 320, 321, 334, 338, 344, 
362, 366, 373, 377, 384, 391, 397, 
405, 418, 422; Royal Palace, 303; 
City University (see Universi- 
ties); Exchange, 337; Posten, 
377; Royal Theatre, 346, 352, 413, 
431. 

Stolarm, Arvid, 185. 

Stolbova, peace treaty of, 198. 

Stolhandske, Torsten, 216-217, 218. 

Stone Age, 11-16; cists, 13. 

Stongebro, battle of, 185. 

Strahlenberg, J. von, 288. 

Strandberg, C. W. A., 389. 

Stralsund, siege of, 299-300. 

Strengnses, 71, 114, 128, 140. 

Strindberg, August, 426-127, 428, 
431; Nils, 424. 

Strcemstad, 307, 322. 

Strole, Olof, 197. 

Stromberg, Nils, 291-292. 

Stuhm, battle of, 202-203. 

Sturzen-Becker, O. P., 389. 

Suchtelen, von, 359. 

Succession, Royal, 150, 151, 190, 
310; law of, 434. 



INDEX 



459 



Stuart, Mary, 162; Charles 
Magnus, 270, 277. 

Sture, 130, 140, 146, 181, 182; orig- 
inal line: Sten Sture, 'the El- 
der, 113, 114-120, 121, 123, 130- 
131; Natt och Dag branch: Nils 
Bosson, 108-109, 116, 118, 120, 
123; Svante Nilsson, 118-123, 
141; Sten Sture, the Younger, 
123-129, 131, 142; Nils Stensson, 
147; Svante Stensson, Count, 
149, 151, 155, 156, 162, 168, 169- 
170, 177; Nils Svantesson, 168, 
169; Eric, 170; Martha (see 
Leijonhufvud); Sigrid, 176-182; 
Magdalen, 176-182, 296; Anne, 
177; Margaret, 177, 179; Chris- 
tine, 177. 

Sture Chronicles, 114. 

Styrbioern Starke, 55-56. 

Subsidies, 252, 316, 319. 

Sud, 49. 

Suevian Sea, 26. 

Suiones, 26. 

Sundberg, Archbishop, 407. 

Sunnanskogs, 5. 

Sunnanvaeder, Peder, 141-143, 147. 

Suomi, 437. 

Supreme Court. See Sweden. 

"Surgeon's Stories," 413. 

Svserdsbro, 179. 

Svaerdsjoe, 135. 

Svartsjoe, 155, 173. 

Sveaborg, fortress of, 317, 359-360. 

Svealand, 5, 14, 19, 24, 27, 58, 68, 
69, 83, 185. 

"Svecia," 265-266. 

Svedberg, Jesper, 321. 

Svedbom, 431. 

Sveijder, 35, 

Svein, Norwegian jarl, 57-58. 

Sven. See Blot-Sven. 

Svend (Danish kings): Tjufvus- 
ksegg, 57; Estridsen, 63; Grade, 
72. 

Svendborg, 246. 

Svensksund, naval battles of, 350- 
351. 

Sverdrup, J., 406. 

Sverker, the Old, 71-73, 75; the 
Younger, 74, 75-77. 

Sviar, 27, 35, 47, 64. 

Sviatoslaf, 51. 

Svinesund, 307, 372. 

Svithiod, 34, 35, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41. 

Svolder, battle of, 57-58. 



Swabia, 29, 213. 

Sweden, 5, 11, 21, 26, 27, 31, 34, 

42, 58, 64, 75, 90, 105, 126, 188, 
192, 214, 221, 222, 223, 229-230, 
250, 265, 272, 289, 291, 296, 298, 
300, 309, 320-321, 363-364, 374, 
403, 418, 432-434; administration 
(see Government); agriculture, 
15, 117, 152, 260, 306, 317, 423; 
alcohol industry, 387; archi- 
tects (see Architecture); army, 
152, 186, 201-202, 203, 231, 258- 

259, 283, 290, 296, 307, 408-410, 
415-418; art, 261, 303, 347, 382, 

391, 412, 421, 428-431; botanists 
(see Botany); broadcloth, 335, 
336, 337; budget, 422; cabinet, 

365, 374, 376, 378, 382, 383, 391- 

392, 394-395, 399-400, 402, 404, 
435, 436; canals (see Gotha 
Canal); civilization (see Cultural 
Development); climate, 7; col- 
onies, 232; commerce, 81-82, 85, 
105, 116, 152, 176, 188, 198, 200, 

260, 288, 302, 376, 387, 406, 407, 
414, 421, 422; communications, 
374, 387, 406, 421; communities, 
39, 42, 64, 105, 396, 432; com- 
posers (see Music); constitution, 
64, 65, 105, 255-258, 268, 292-293, 
302, 310, 314, 318, 344, 349-350, 

366, 378, 400, 434; court, 87, 146, 
154, 189, 240, 255, 318, 319, 338, 
339; court party, 318-320, 338; 
criminal code, 395; crown, 144, 
149, 174-175, 201, 239, 255 (see 
also Crown lands, restitution 
of); cultural development, 14, 
18, 23, 30-31, 59-61, 68, 71-72, 
98-99, 105, 114, 117-118, 141-142, 
173, 188, 201, 232-233, 261-267, 
302-306, 313, 320, 321-341, 345- 
347, 353, 380-381, 382, 388-390, 

393, 405, 408, 411-413, 422-433; 
dairy industry, 152, 425; defence, 
254, 260, 293, 374, 375, 408, 417- 
418; departments, state, 199, 230, 
298, 314, 378, 421, 435 (see also 
Cabinet and Ministers); dialect 
research, 340, 841; electric tele- 
graph, 387, 422; emblem, 164, 
197; engineers, 424-426; estates 
(see Estates); exports and im- 
ports, 422; finance, 94, 187, 239, 
243, 301-302, 306, 311, 313, 315, 
319, 374, 407, 408, 422; forests, 



460 



INDEX 



7, 18; fundamental laws, 434- 
435; geographical discoveries, 
288, 424; geology, 8, 12, 325; 
government, 64. 65, 74, 85, 87, 

88, 91, 92, 93, 96, 101-104, 108, 114, 
115, 123, 149-150, 152-153, 161- 
162, 174, 176, 188, 189, 190, 203, 
230, 233, 249-252, 253, 256-257, 
258, 259-260, 271, 292-293, 300- 
302, 310-311, 312, 313, 315, 316, 
317, 319, 320, 345, 354-355, 374, 
378, 383-384, 390, 391, 395-401, 
403, 404, 407, 409, 410-411, 416, 
418, 419, 435; graves, 13, 14, 16, 
17, 19, 23, 27; historians (see 
History); industries, 302, 306, 
317, 319, 334-337, 383, 387, 393, 
407, 421; inland seas, 305, 325; 
inventors, 304, 321, 322, 425-426; 
kings, 26, 31, 40, 41, 42, 64-65, 
67, 84, 85, 87, 92, 96, 99, 115, 125, 
145, 150, 158, 189, 190, 191, 201, 
242, 249, 253, 263, 268, 300, 308, 
343, 382-383, 391, 401, 411, 414, 
415, 434-435; land-tax, 408, 410, 
416; language, 8, 9, 15, 47-48, 
99, 153, 237, 238, 330, 340, 346- 
347, 390; legislation, 82, 85-86, 

89, 93, 105, 110, 314, 315, 383, 
395-401, 416-418; literature, 66- 
67, 80, 89, 98, 99, 121, 155, 233, 
237, 261, 263, 337-339, 345-847, 
380-382, 388-389, 405, 412-413, 
414, 426-428; loanwords, 8, 47; 
manufactures, 306, 817, 335-336; 
maritime code, 895; metal en- 
graving (see Art); migrations, 
34; military districts and divi- 
sions, 417-418; militia, 357, 365, 
369, 409, 410, 416, 417; mining in- 
dustry, 82, 116, 152, 188, 201, 230- 
232, 260, 336; municipal govern- 
ment, 395-396; mythology, 31- 
32,53; national anthem, 484; na- 
tional character and tempera- 
ment, 9, 10, 98, 354, 389-390, 405, 
433-484; naturalists (see Sci- 
ence); navigation, 407, 422; 
navy, 94, 149, 168, 226-227, 231, 
253, 258-259, 416, 418; one realm, 
39, 42, 43, 64-65, 105; painters 
(see Art); philologists (see 
Philology); philosophers (see 
Philosophy); political grandeur, 
191, 192-309; population, 5, 8, 16, 
94, 176, 193; possessions, 253, 272, 



292, 293, 299, 813 (see also Ter- 
ritory, Finland, and Baltic 
Dominion and Provinces); postal 
service, 231, 421; proper names, 
32, 47, 48; provincial laws, 8, 66- 
67, 70, 89, 93, 380, 392; railways, 
387, 406, 421; regent, 68, 79, 88, 
91, 108, 109, 113, 115, 120, 122, 
124, 126, 140, 184, 353-356. 362- 
364, 391, 392-393; scenery, 6, 98, 
330, 391; Riksdag (see Riksdag); 
seal of state, 164; science, 9, 232, 
240, 261, 265, 288, 302, 304-306, 
321, 324-325. 382, 339, 340,346, 
380, 408, 414, 421, 426; sculptors 
(see Art); sects, 432; singers, song 
(see Music); sloyd, 287; state, 
8, 64-65, 151, 192, 199, 230; state 
law, 67, 93, 105, 110, 315; state 
treasurer, 189, 250; statesmen, 
82, 87, 89, 146, 192, 199, 204, 220, 
251, 312, 315-316, 317, 368, 392- 
393, 437; suffrage, 396, 399, 433; 
supreme court, 162, 174. 199, 200, 
230, 350; taxes, taxation, 76. 88, 
103, 107, 201, 233, 238, 240, 279, 
290, 293, 314, 317, 387, 396, 408, 
410; telephone system, 422; 
territory, 6, 93, 104, 434; towns, 
10, 75, 82, 85, 116, 152, 176, 188, 
311, 395. 397, 399; town laws, 
116; tribes, 66, 105. 

Swedenborg, E., 321-327, 332, 347. 

"Swedish Fates and Adventures," 
427. 

Swinhufvud. See Barbro Stigs- 
dotter. 

Sword, Order of the, 318. 

Systema Naturae, 330, 333. 



T 



Tacitus, 26, 27, 30, 434. 

Tartars, 285. 

Taube, Mathilde. See Grabow. 

Tavastehus, 77, 358. 

Tavasti, Tavastland, 77, 78, 88. 

Tchudi, 47. 

TeDeum,277. 

Tegner, Esaias, 353, 363, 381-382, 

389; Esaias, Junior, 423. 
Telegraph. See Sweden. 
Temperance movement, 387. 
Terna, 133. 
Tessin, Nicodemus, Senior, 302- 

303; Nicodemus, Junior, 302- 



INDEX 



461 



304, 317, 430; Charles Gustavus, 
317, 318, 332, 336, 339, 340. 

Teuflel, General, 207. 

Teutons, Teutonic, 8, 21, 22, 25, 26, 
28, 44; ancestors, 15; languages, 
8, 238, 342; communities, 396, 432; 
migrations, 20, 23, 44; my- 
thology, 30; origin, 30, 265; sea, 
25; state, 64-65; traditions, 29- 
30; tribes, 30, 43. 

Thegerstrom, Robert, 430. 

Themptander, O. R., 416. 

Theology, 340-341. 

Theophilus, Emperor, 48. 

Theosophy, 325, 412. 

Thermometer, Centigrade, 321, 333. 
See Celsius 

Thing (Assembly), 55, 56, 58, 61, 
65, 72, 82, 86. 

Thiodulf of Hvin, 33, 35, 41. 

Thirty Years' War, 193, 202-229, 
23i; 236, 261, 281, 312, 434. 

Thomas, Bishop, 114, 121. 

Thomasius, 266. 

Thor, 30-31. . 

Thorild, T., 346, 355. 

Thorn, 172. 

Thorvald, Hialte, 56. 

Thraldom, 82, 93, 137, 309. 

Thule, 24, 25, 28, 29. 
_Thunberg, D., 375. 

Tidemand, 405. 

Tilly, 203, 206-209, 210-211. 

Timutarsz, 297, 298. 

Tiundaland, 39, 62. 

Tiveden, 83, 127. 

Tobacco, 336. 

Tobolsk, 287. 

Toennig, fortress of, 295-296. 

"Toernroseus bok," 389. 

Toll, J. C, 344, 356, 357. 

Tomte Mats, 137. 

Topelius, Z., 412-413. 

Tordenskiold, Peter, 307, 811, 822. 

Toresson. See Ahlstroemer. 

Torgau, retreat from, 224. 

Torgny, 62. 

Tormentor of Denmark, 122. 

Torne, River, 363. 

Torpa, 156, 181. 

Torsslov, O. U., 390. 

Torstensson, Lennart, 223, 225- 
229, 239, 245, 248. 

Tott, Eric Axelson, 113, 117; Ivar 
Axelson, 113, 117; Ingeborg, 
118; Ake, 173; Clas, 175, 



Traventhal, peace treaty of, 274. 

Tre Rosor, 282 note; Ture Joenssonj 
146, 148, 149, 156; John Tures- 
son, 149, 156, 158; Gustavus 
Johnsson, Count, 156, 162. 

Trolle, Eric, 123, 124; Gustavus, 
Archbishop, 124-125, 127-128, 
129, 139, 142, 148. 

Troll hetta, waterfalls of, 306, 375. 

Tromp, Admiral, 253. 

Truvor, 47, 48. 

Try ggve. See Truvor. 

Truso, 43. 

Turgot, 59. 

Turkey, Turks, 283, 287, 293, 294, 
296-298, 299, 303, 305, 388. 

Tver, battle of, 188. 

Tyr, 30. 

Tyrol, 6, 

U 

Ube, River, 206. 

Ukraine, 285, 286, 292. 

Uleoborg, 358, 

Ulf, jarls, 74; 78, 79. 

Ulf Gudmundsson, 97. 

Ulfhild, 71. 

Ulfsson, Jacob, 117, 124, 133. 

Ulrica Eleonore, queens of Swe- 
den, 255, 268, 274; 269, 289, 298, 
309, 310, 311,312, 313, 316. 

Ulricsdal, 391. 

Union, Act of, 4, 92, 93, 94, 101- 
102, 104, 114, 120, 129, 151, 166- 
167, 317, 372-374, 393, 395, 420; 
nature of the, 419-421, 437; re- 
vision of the, 386, 394-395, 406, 
421. 

Union government, 420, 438; de- 
fence, 420, 438; parliament, 420, 
438. 

Unionism, Unionist party, 110, 
111, 114, 120, 121, 122, 123, 130, 
393-395, 415-416. 

Unitarianism, 325, 412. 

United States, 436, 437-438 (see 
also America); President of, 434. 

Universities, 117. 131, 153, 183, 189, 
230, 235, 250, 304, 322, 327, 329, 
339, 340-341, 356, 380, 385, 390, 
405, 411, 413, 422-423. 

Unne, 55. 

Upland, 5, 10, 23, 35, 39, 48, 73, 78, 
89, 90, 97, 105, 107, 110, 124, 139, 
185, 391. 

Uppstroem, A., 137 note. 

Upsala, 10, 33, 35, 37, 38, 89, 42, 



462 



INDEX 



51, 68, 71, 74, 107, 120, 131, 134, 
139, 142, 143, 147, 153, 157, 161, 
175, 183, 201, 235, 240, 262, 264, 
304, 322, 323, 329, 330, 331-332, 
340, 356, 380, 413; cathedral, 82, 
112; meeting-, 183; University 
(see Universities); University 
Botanical Garden, 329, 362; Li- 
brary, 201, 235; Observatory, 
333; temple, 59, 60, 68, # 71. 

Uranus, 324. 

Usedom, island of, 205, 229, 312. 

Utilitarianism, 337, 432, 

Utmeland, 137. 

"Utopia Realized," 427. 



Vadstena, 98-99, 104, 107, 120, 140, 
164, 173, 184, 304. 

Vseraelse, peace treaty of, 351. 

Vserend, 29, 58, 66, 72. 

Vserfvade, 714. 

Vaeringar, 49. 

Valdemar of Sweden, 80-84, 89. 

Valdemar (kings of Denmark): 
Seier, 76, 77; Atterdag, 95, 100. 

Valdemar, Prince, 87, 89-91. 

Vandals, 47. 

Vanlande, 35. 

Varanger Bay, 378, 387-388. 

Varberg, 167, 168. 

Variagi, Varangians, 46-53. 

Varinians, 29. 

Vasa dynasty, family, 130, 163, 187, 
193, 194, 249; Original line: 
Krister Nilsson. 108, 110, 130; 
Kettil Karlsson, 112-113; Eric 
Johansson, 128, 130; Gustavus 
Ericsson (see Gustavus I.); Eric 
(see Eric XIV.); John (see John 
III.); Magnus (see Magnus, 
Princes of Sweden); Charles (see 
Charles IX.); Gustavus Erics- 
son, 172-173; Sigrid, 172-173, 
177; Sigismund (see Sigismund); 
John, Duke (see John); Charles 
Philip (see Charles); Catherine 
(see Catherine, Countess-Pala- 
tine); Gustavus Adolphus (see 
Gustavus II. Adolphus); Chris- 
tine (see Christine, queens of 
Sweden); Polish line, 163, 240; 
Sigismund (see Sigismund); 
Vladislav, 186, 188, 243; John 
II. Casimir, 243-244. 



Vasa Renaissance. See Renais- 
sance. 

Vasa, town, 360. 

Vassili, Czar. See Schinsky. 

Vaxholm, fortress of, 197, 418. 

Venar, Lake, 5, 69. 

Vends, Vendish, 57, 63, 75. 

Vennerberg, Gunnar. 389-390, 409, 
413. 

Verden, 229, 235, 312. 

Verm land, 5, 40, 41, 43, 55, 68, 83, 
107, 111. 116, 174, 194, 229, 307, 
308, 335. 

Vessi, 47. 

"Verzage nicht," 215. 

Vettar, Lake, 5, 77, 164, 418. 

Vexio, 71, 84, 291, 327, 328, 331. 

Viborg, fortress of, 88, 118, 292, 
312, 351. 

Victoria, crown princess of Swe- 
den-Norway, 415. 

Vienna, 203, 226, 299; Congress of, 
372-373; Exposition, 421; peace 
treaty of, 405; siege of, 228-229. 

Viken, 46. 

Viking Age, Vikings, 8, 24, 41, 44- 
63, 66, 70. 

Vilmanstrand, battle of, 316. 

Vincentius, Bishop, 128. 

Virdar, 29. 

Virta, battle of, 358. 

Visbur, 35. 

Visby, 85, 95, 304. 

Visigoths, 236. 

Visingsborg, 251. 

Visingsoe, 77, 87, 180. 

Vistula, 21, 27, 31. 

Vitalen, or Victualen Brother- 
hood, 101. 

Vitesjoe, battle of, 195. 

Vladimir, St., 51, 52. 

Vladislav. See Vasa, Polish line. 

Voldgaestning, 86, 

Volga, 50. 

Volmar, 187. 

Voltaire, 347. 

Vordingborg, 247. 

Vorskla, River, 285, 286. 

Vossius, 236-237. 

W 

Wachtmeister, Hans, 259; Hans 

Hansson, 435. 
Wahlberg, Edward, 429. 
Wallachia, 22, 299. 



INDEX 



463 



Wallenstein, 203, 204, 210-218, 221. 

Wallhof, battle of, 202. 

Wallin, J. O., Archbishop, 381. 

Wallis, Curt, 424. 

Walloons, 231. 

War of Clubs, 184. 

Warburg, K., 248. 

Warsaw, battle of, 244; conquest 

of, 244, 278; diet of, 278. 
Washington, George, 367. 
Weibule, M., 424. 
Weimar. See Bernhard, Duke of 

Weimar. 
Wendland, 43. 
Werben, 206. 
Westerbotten, West Bothnia, 5, 

16. 
Westerlund, Dr., 424. 
Westeros, 71, 107, 108, 123, 124, 

128, 139, 141, 143, 151, 171, 262, 

Ordinantia and Recess, 145-146; 

151. 
West Gothland. See Gothland. 
Westmanland, 5, 58, 106, 107, 112, 

116, 147, 195. 
Westphalia, 236; Peace of, 229. 
Wetterstedt, G. af, 374. 
Wetterstrand, Dr., 424. 
Wickman, G., 431. 
Wikblad, S. H., 435. 
Wikner, Pontus, 423. 
William, Bishop of Salima, 78. 
William I. of Germany, 415. 
William of Orange, 259. 
Windau, 203. 
Windsor, 237. 
Wingard, O. F. af, 883. 



Wirsen, G. F. af. 374, 378. 

Wismar, 229, 357. 

Witches, 251. 

Witmar, 54. 

Wittelsbachs, The, 249. 

Wittstock, battle of, 223. 

Wolfenbuttel, battle of, 324. 

Wolgast, 222. 

Wollin, island of, 56, 229, 312. 

Women's rights, 383. 

Wrangel, 286; Herman, 203; 

Charles Gustavus, 227, 229, 248, 

250, 251, 252, 257. 
Wulfila, 67. 235, 237, 341. 
Wulfstan, 43. 



Yeoman, Yeomanry, 72, 73, 78, 
106, 108, 111, 114. 136, 144, 146, 
149, 158, 192, 199, 201, 283, 238, 
251, 253, 255, 258, 260, 814, 316, 
318, 350, 357, 397, 407, 416, 483. 

Ynglinga Saga. 81, 33-41, 51. 

Ynglingatal, 33-41. 

Ynglings, Yngling kings, 83-41, 

Yngvar, 38-39. 

Yngve, Swedish kings, 85; 36. 

York, 58. 

Yrsa, 38. 



Z 



Zamoisky, 187. 
Zettervall, H., 430. 
Zoology, 380. 
Zorn, A. L„, 430, 



